In the 21st century, online learning has evolved as a worldwide platform to connect, collaborate and engage users in the learning process. Online learning today is integrated with social network connectivity, which builds an ecosystem for interaction between students, teachers and professors from every corner of the world providing them with free accessible online resources. However, in order to promote active engagement of the learners and delivery of meaningful learning in the online learning settings, it is also necessary to determine student’s perceptions towards online learning. The present thesis has three inter-related studies.
The first study aimed to develop a scale to measure student’s perceptions towards online learning. The resulted scale consists of four dimensions: instructor characteristics, social presence, instructional design, and trust. In the next study, the developed scale was used to examine the impact of five personality trait extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and intellect/imagination on the perception of students towards online learning. The results showed that personality traits, conscientiousness and intellect/imagination have a larger positive impact on student’s perceptions towards online learning, whereas neuroticism has significantly negative effects on participants of online courses. Finally, cross-country differences were investigated between India and Taiwan, on student’s perceptions towards online learning. Results showed that culture did influence student’s perceptions towards online learning. The implications of the present study are important for instructional designers, educators, and institutions that are planning to offer, or currently offering, online courses.

Abrami, P., Bernard, R., Bures, E., Borokhovski, E., & Tamim, R. (2012). Interaction in Distance Education and Online Learning: Using Evidence and Theory to Improve Practice. In L. Moller & J. B. Huett (Eds.), The Next Generation of Distance Education (pp. 49-69): Springer US.
Alarcon, G. M., & Edwards, J. M. (2013). Ability and motivation: Assessing individual factors that contribute to university retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(1), 129-137.
Alario-Hoyos, C., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., Cormier, D., & Kloos, C. D. (2014). Proposal for a Conceptual Framework for Educators to Describe and Design MOOCs. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 20(1), 6-23.
Alkhatib, H., Faraboschi, P., Frachtenberg, E., Kasahara, H., Lange, D., Laplante, P., Schwan, K. (2014). IEEE CS 2022 Report. Retrieved from https://www.computer.org/cms/ComputingNow/2022Report.pdf
Alraimi, K. M., Zo, H., & Ciganek, A. P. (2015). Understanding the MOOCs continuance: The role of openness and reputation. Computers & Education, 80, 28-38. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.006
Altbach, P. G. (2014). MOOCs as neocolonialism: who controls knowledge? International Higher Education, 75, 5-7.
Anderson, P. K. (2014). University education as relational: The challenge of online studies. Contemporary PNG Studies: DWU Research Journal, 19, 36-49.
Anderson, T. (2008). The Theory and Practice of Online Learning (2nd ed.). Edmonton,AB: Athabasca University (AU) Press.
Arispe, K., & Blake, R. J. (2012). Individual factors and successful learning in a hybrid course. System, 40(4), 449-465. doi:10.1016/j.system.2012.10.013
Ashong, C. Y., & Commander, N. E. (2012). Ethnicity, gender, and perceptions of online learning in higher education. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 8(2), 98-110.
Atchley, T., Wingenbach, G., & Akers, C. (2013). Comparison of course completion and student performance through online and traditional courses. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 14(4), 104-116.
Baddeley, A. (2000). The Episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in cognitive science, 4(11), 417-423.
Baldasaro, R. E., Shanahan, M. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2013). Psychometric properties of the mini-IPIP in a large, nationally representative sample of young adults. J Pers Assess, 95(1), 74-84. doi:10.1080/00223891.2012.700466
Barak, M., Watted, A., & Haick, H. (2016). Motivation to learn in massive open online courses: Examining aspects of language and social engagement. Computers & Education, 94, 49-60. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.010
Barberà, E., Layne, L., & Gunawardena, C. N. (2014). Designing online interaction to address disciplinary competencies: A cross-country comparison of faculty perspectives. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning; Vol 15, No 2 (2014).
Bartley, S. J., & Golek, J. H. (2004). Evaluating the Cost Effectiveness of Online and Face-to-Face Instruction. Educational Technology & Society, 7(4), 167-175.
Bates, T. (2001). International distance education: Cultural and ethical issues. Distance Education, 22(1), 122-136.
Benson, A. (2002). Using online learning to meet workforce demand: A case study of stakeholder influence. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 3(4), 443-452.
Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Wozney, L., Wallet, P. A., Fiset, M., & Huang, B. (2004). How Does Distance Education Compare With Classroom Instruction? A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 379-439.
Bhagat, K. K., Wu, L. Y., & Chang, C. Y. (2016). Development and validation of the perception of students towards online learning (POSTOL). Educational Technology & Society, 19(1), 350-359.
Bhattacharyya, H. (2003). Multiculturalism in contemporary India. International Journal on Multicultural societies, 5(2), 148-161.
Bolliger, D. U., & Erichsen, E. A. (2012). Student Satisfaction with Blended and Online Courses Based on Personality Type. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 39(1).
Branch, R. M. (2009). Instructional Design: The ADDIE Approach. New York: Springer.
Bárcena, E., Read, T., Martín-Monje, E., & Castrillo, M. D. (2014). Analysing student participation in Foreign Language MOOCs: a case study. Paper presented at the EMOOCs 2014, Lausanne, Switzerland.
Caldwell, E. R. (2006). A comparative study of three instructional modalities in a computer programming course: Traditional instruction, Web-based instruction, and online instruction. (3227694 Ph.D.), The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Ann Arbor. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I database.
Cela-Ranilla, J. M., Gisbert, M., & de Oliveira, J. M. (2011). Exploring the relationship among learning patterns, personality traits, and academic performance in freshmen. Educational Research and Evaluation, 17(3), 175-192. doi:10.1080/13803611.2011.599564
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2003). Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence from two longitudinal university samples. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(4), 319-338. doi:10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00578-0
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2005). Intellectual competence. The Psychologist, 18(6), 352-354.
Chen, K.-C., & Jang, S.-J. (2010). Motivation in online learning: Testing a model of self-determination theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(4), 741-752. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.011
Cheng, S.-S., Liu, E. Z.-F., Chen, N.-S., Shih, R.-C., & Chang, C.-S. (2012). Gender differences in college students' behaviors in an online question-answer discussion activity. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 21(2), 245-256.
Cook, M. P. (2006). Visual representations in science education: The influence of prior knowledge and cognitive load theory on instructional design principles. Science Education, 90, 1073-1091.
Cooper, A. J., Smillie, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2010). A confirmatory factor analysis of the Mini-IPIP five-factor model personality scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(5), 688-691. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.004
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI): professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Cowan, N. (2005). Working memoory capacity. New York: Psychology Press.
Crook, C. (2008). Web 2.0 technologies for learning: The current landscape – Opportunities,challenges and tensions. London: Becta.
Davies, R. S., Dean, D. L., & Ball, N. (2013). Flipping the classroom and instructional technology integration in a college-level information systems spreadsheet course. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61, 563-580. doi:10.1007/s11423-013-9305-6
de Barba, P. G., Kennedy, G. E., & Ainley, M. D. (2016). The role of students' motivation and participation in predicting performance in a MOOC. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(3), 218-231. doi:10.1111/jcal.12130
de Freitas, S. I., Morgan, J., & Gibson, D. (2015). Will MOOCs transform learning and teaching in higher education? Engagement and course retention in online learning provision. British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(3), 455-471. doi:10.1111/bjet.12268
Delahunty, J., Jones, P., & Verenikina, I. (2014). Movers and Shapers: teaching in online environments. Linguistics and Education, 28, 54-78.
Dollinger, S. J., Matyja, A. M., & Huber, J. L. (2008). Which factors best account for academic success: Those which college students can control or those they cannot? Journal of Research in Personality, 42(4), 872-885. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.11.007
Donnellan, M. B., Oswald, F. L., Baird, B. M., & Lucas, R. E. (2006). The mini-IPIP scales: tiny-yet-effective measures of the Big Five factors of personality. Psychological assessment, 18(2), 192-203. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.192
Emanuel, E. J. (2013). Online education: MOOCs taken by educated few. Nature, 503(7476), 342-342.
Eryilmaz, E., van der Pol, J., Ryan, T., Clark, P. M., & Mary, J. (2013). Enhancing student knowledge acquisition from online learning conversations. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 8(1), 113-144. doi:10.1007/s11412-012-9163-y
Fernando, Z., Rosalba, C., Francisco, L., Andres, V., & Dionicio, Z. (2008). u-Teacher: Ubiquitous Learning Approach. In Z. Pan, X. Zhang, A. El Rhalibi, W. Woo, & Y. Li (Eds.), Technologies for E-Learning and Digital Entertainment (Vol. 5093, pp. 9-20): Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382-388.
Funder, D. (1997). The personality puzzle. New York: Norton.
Furnham, A., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & McDougall, F. (2003). Personality, cognitive ability, and beliefs about intelligence as predictors of academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 14(1), 47-64. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2003.08.002
Gemmell, I., Harrison, R., Clegg, J., & Reed, K. (2015). Internationalisation in online distance learning postgraduate education: a case study on student views on learning alongside students from other countries. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 52(2), 137-147. doi:10.1080/14703297.2014.881264
Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological assessment, 4, 26-42.
Grandison, T., & Sloman, M. (2000). A survey of trust in internet applications. Communications Surveys & Tutorials, IEEE, 3(4), 2-16.
Gunawardena, C. N., Nolla, A. C., Wilson, P. L., Lopez‐Islas, J. R., Ramirez‐Angel, N., & Megchun‐Alpizar, R. M. (2001). A cross‐cultural study of group process and development in online conferences. Distance Education, 22(1), 85-121. doi:10.1080/0158791010220106
Gürsul, F., & Keser, H. (2009). The effects of online and face to face problem based learning environments in mathematics education on student's academic achievement. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 2817-2824. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.501
Hair, J. F., Jr., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., Babin, B. J., & Black, W. C. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hamdan, A. K. (2014). The reciprocal and correlative relationship between learning culture and online education: A case from Saudi Arabia. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(1), 309-336.
Harasim, L. (2012). Learning Theory and Online Technologies. New York: Routledge Press.
Harris, C. (1997). Developing online market research methods and tools, . Paper presented at the Paper presented to ESOMAR Worldwide Internet Seminar, Lisbon.
Heuer, B. P., & King, K. P. (2004). Leading the Band: The Role of the Instructor in Online Learning for Educators Barbara P. Heuer and Kathleen P. King. 3(1), 1-11.
Hew, K. F., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating technology into K-12 teaching and learning: current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(3), 223-252. doi:10.1007/s11423-006-9022-5
Hew, K. F., & Cheung, W. S. (2014). Students’ and instructors’ use of massive open online courses (MOOCs): Motivations and challenges. Educational Research Review, 12, 45-58. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2014.05.001
Hofman, D. W. (2002). Internet-based distance education learning in higher education. TechDirections, 62(1), 28-32.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. London: Sage.
Hollands, F. M., & Tirthali, D. (2014). MOOCs: Expectations and Reality. Retrieved from http://cbcse.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/MOOCs_Expectations_and_Reality.pdf
Horzum, M. B., Önder, İ., & Beşoluk, Ş. (2014). Chronotype and academic achievement among online learning students. Learning and Individual Differences, 30, 106-111. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.10.017
House, L., Weldon, R., & Wysocki, A. (2007). Student Perceptions of Online Distance Education in Undergraduate Agricultural Economic Programs Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 39(2), 275-284.
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J.,Javidan, M.,Dorfman, P. W.,&Gupta, V. . (2004). Culture, Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
Hung, M.-L., Chou, C., Chen, C.-H., & Own, Z.-Y. (2010). Learner readiness for online learning: Scale development and student perceptions. Computers & Education, 55(3), 1080-1090. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.004
Ipsos MediaCT. (2013).Our Mobile Planet: Taiwan. Understanding the mobile consumer.Retrieved from http://www.internetworldstats.com/
Joksimović, S., Gašević, D., Loughin, T. M., Kovanović, V., & Hatala, M. (2015). Learning at distance: Effects of interaction traces on academic achievement. Computers & Education, 87, 204-217. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.07.002
Jones, S., Johnson-Yale, C., Millermaier, S., & Pérez, F. S. (2008). Academic work, the Internet and U.S. college students. The Internet and Higher Education, 11(3–4), 165-177. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.07.001
Joo, Y. J., Oh, E., & Kim, S. M. (2015). Motivation, instructional design, flow, and academic achievement at a Korean online university: a structural equation modeling study. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 27(1), 28-46. doi:10.1007/s12528-015-9090-9
Judd, T., & Kennedy, G. (2010). A five-year study of on-campus Internet use by undergraduate biomedical students. Computers and Education, 55(4), 1564-1571. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.06.022
Karim, N. S. A., Zamzuri, N. H. A., & Nor, Y. M. (2009). Exploring the relationship between Internet ethics in university students and the big five model of personality. Computers & Education, 53(1), 86-93. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.001
Kassabian, D. (2014). Massive open online courses (MOOCs) at elite, early-adopter universities: Goals, progress, and value proposition. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1615100437?accountid=14228
Keller, H., & Karau, S. J. (2013). The importance of personality in students’ perceptions of the online learning experience. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2494-2500. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.007
Kelly, A. P. (2014). Disruptor, Distracter, or What? A Policymaker's Guide to Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCS). Retrieved from http://bellwethereducation.org/sites/default/files/BW_MOOC_Final.pdf
Kelly, K. L., & Schorger, J. (2002). Online Learning: Personalities, Preferences and Perceptions Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED470663.pdf. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED470663.pdf
Kerr, B. (2014). Challenges in global e-learning: What does the literature tell us. Paper presented at the Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL), 2014 International Conference on.
Khan, B. (2005). Managing e-learning strategies: Design, delivery, implementation and evaluation. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Inc.
Khandelwal, S. K., Jhingan, H. P., Ramesh, S., Gupta, R. K., & Srivastava, V. K. (2004). India mental health country profile. International Review of Psychiatry, 16(1-2), 126-141. doi:10.1080/09540260310001635177
Kim, C., Park, S. W., & Cozart, J. (2013). Affective and motivational factors of learning in online mathematics courses. British Journal of Educational Technology, n/a-n/a. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01382.x
Kim, J. (2011). Developing an instrument to measure social presence in distance higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(5), 763-777. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01107.x
Kim, K.-J., & Bonk, C. J. (2002). Cross-cultural Comparisons of Online Collaboration. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(1), 0-0. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2002.tb00163.x
Kim, Y., Glassman, M., & Williams, M. S. (2015). Connecting agents: Engagement and motivation in online collaboration. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 333-342. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.03.015
Kirschner, P. A. (2002). Cognitive load theory: implications of cognitive load theory on the design of learning. Learning & Instruction, 12, 1-10.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Komarraju, M., & Karau, S. J. (2005). The relationship between the big five personality traits and academic motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(3), 557-567. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.013
Komarraju, M., Karau, S. J., & Schmeck, R. R. (2009). Role of the Big Five personality traits in predicting college students' academic motivation and achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(1), 47-52. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2008.07.001
Komarraju, M., Karau, S. J., Schmeck, R. R., & Avdic, A. (2011). The Big Five personality traits, learning styles, and academic achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(4), 472-477. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.019
Kupczynski, L., Brown, M., Holland, G., & Uriegas, B. (2014). The Relationship between Gender and Academic Success Online. Journal of Educators Online, 11(1), 1-14.
Larsen, R. J., & Buss, D. M. (2005). Personality psychology: Domains of knowledge about human nature. New York: McGraw Hill.
Lee, B. C., Yoon, J. O., & Lee, I. (2009). Learners' acceptance of e-learning in South Korea: Theories and results. Computers & Education, 53(4), 1320-1329. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.06.014
Lee, S. J., Srinivasan, S., Trail, T., Lewis, D., & Lopez, S. (2011). Examining the relationship among student perception of support, course satisfaction, and learning outcomes in online learning. Internet and Higher Education, 14(3), 158-163. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.04.001
Lee, Y., & Choi, J. (2011). A review of online course dropout research: implications for practice and future research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59(5), 593-618. doi:10.1007/s11423-010-9177-y
Lim, B., Hong, K. S., & Tan, K. W. (2008). Acceptance of e-learning among distance learners: A Malaysian perspective. In Proceedings of the ASCILITE 2008 (pp. 541-551). Retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org/conferences/melbourne08/procs/lim.pdf.
Lim, D. H. (2004). Cross Cultural Differences in Online Learning Motivation. Educational Media International, 41(2), 163-173.
Lim, D. H., & Morris, M. L. (2006). Combined Effect of Instructional and Learner Variables on Course Outcomes within An Online Learning Environment. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 5(3), 255-269.
Lohr, L. (2008). Creating graphics for learning and performance : Lessons in visual literacy (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Loizzo, J., & Ertmer, P. A. (2016). MOOCocracy: the learning culture of massive open online courses. Educational Technology Research and Development, 1-20. doi:10.1007/s11423-016-9444-7
Lounsbury, J., Saudargas, R., Gibson, L., & Leong, F. (2005). An Investigation of Broad and Narrow Personality Traits in Relation to General and Domain-Specific Life Satisfaction of College Students. Research in Higher Education, 46(6), 707-729. doi:10.1007/s11162-004-4140-6
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugarwara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130-149.
Mahalanobis, P. C. (1936). On the generalized distance in statistics. Proceedings of the National Institute of Sciences (Calcutta), 2, 49-55.
Margaryan, A., Bianco, M., & Littlejohn, A. (2015). Instructional quality of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Computers & Education, 80, 77-83. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.08.005
Matsumoto, D. (1996). Culture and psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks Cole Publishing.
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
McAndrew, P., & Scanlon, E. (2013). Open Learning at a Distance: Lessons for Struggling MOOCs. Science, 342(6165), 1450-1451.
McGeown, S. P., Putwain, D., Geijer Simpson, E., Boffey, E., Markham, J., & Vince, A. (2014). Predictors of adolescents' academic motivation: Personality, self-efficacy and adolescents' characteristics. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 278-286. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.03.022
McLoughlin, C. (1999). Culturally responsive technology use: developing an on-line community of learners. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30(3), 231-243. doi:10.1111/1467-8535.00112
McVay, M. (2000). Developing a Web-based distance student orientation to enhance student success in an online bachelor’s degree completion program (Unpublished doctorial dessertation). Nova Southeastern University, Florida.
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Baki, M. (2013). The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Teachers College Record, 115(3), 1-47.
Mercer, N. (2000). Words and Minds: How we use language to think together. London UK: Routledge.
Meredith, B. P. (2011). Personality types as an indicator of online student success and retention. (3449391 Ed.D.), Pepperdine University, Ann Arbor. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Education Journals database.
Michau, F., Gentil, S., & Barrault, M. (2001). Expected benefits of Web-based learning for engineering education: Examples in control engineering. European Journal of Engineering Education, 26(2), 151-169.
Milheim, K. L. (2014). Cultural inclusivity in online learning Student-Teacher Interaction in Online Learning Environments (pp. 76-88).
Miniwatts Marketing Group. (2014). Internet usage, broadband and telecommunications reports. Retrieved from http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia/tw.htm
Moller, L., Robison, D., & Huett, J. (2012). Unconstrained Learning: Principles for the Next Generation of Distance Education. In L. Moller & J. B. Huett (Eds.), The Next Generation of Distance Education (pp. 1-19): Springer US.
Mullen, G. E., & Tallent-Runnels, M. K. (2006). Student outcomes and perceptions of instructors' demands and support in online and traditional classrooms. The Internet and Higher Education, 9(4), 257-266. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2006.08.005
Nakayama, M., Mutsuura, K., & Yamamoto, H. (2014). Impact of learner’s characteristics and learning behavior on learning performance during a fully online course. The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 12(4), 394-408.
Ng'ambi, D., & Bozalek, V. (2015). Editorial: Massive open online courses (MOOCs): Disrupting teaching and learning practices in higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(3), 451-454. doi:10.1111/bjet.12281
Ning Shen, K., & Khalifa, M. (2008). Exploring Multidimensional Conceptualization of Social Presence in the Context of Online Communities. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 24(7), 722-748. doi:10.1080/10447310802335789
OECD. (2010). Higher education in regional and city development. The autonomous region of Catalonia, Spain. Catalonia, Spain: OECD Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/imhe/46826969.pdf.
Olaniran, B. A. (2009). Discerning culture in e-learning and in the global workplaces. Knowledge Management & E-Learning: An International Journal (KM&EL), 1(3), 180-195.
Olesova, L., Yang, D., & Richardson, J. C. (2011). Cross-Cultural Differences in Undergraduate Students' Perceptions of Online Barriers. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 15(3), 68-80.
Ordóñez, A. C. (2014). Predicting International Critical Success Factors in e-learning: A comparison of four universities from China, Mexico, Spain and USA. Retrieved from http://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/276198/Thesis%20Armando%20Cortes_24_Jul_2014_ok.pdf;jsessionid=18B3E50FA1797D31F8EB6F052E768FE2.tdx1?sequence=1
Osman, G., & Herring, S. C. (2007). Interaction, facilitation, and deep learning in cross-cultural chat: A case study. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(2), 125-141. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2007.03.004
Otter, R. R., Seipel, S., Graeff, T., Alexander, B., Boraiko, C., Gray, J., . . . Sadler, K. (2013). Comparing student and faculty perceptions of online and traditional courses. The Internet and Higher Education, 19, 27-35. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.08.001
O’Connor, M. C., & Paunonen, S. V. (2007). Big Five personality predictors of post-secondary academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(5), 971-990. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.017
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.
Pawlowska, D. K., Westerman, J. W., Bergman, S. M., & Huelsman, T. J. (2014). Student personality, classroom environment, and student outcomes: A person–environment fit analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 180-193. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.10.005
Prowse, S. (2015). Taiwan's Growing Multiculturalism. The Diplomat. Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2015/02/taiwans-growing-multiculturalism/
PTI. (2016). HRD ministry mulling launching Swayam MOOCs platform on Aug 15. The New Indian Express. Retrieved from http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/HRD-ministry-mulling-launching-Swayam-MOOCs-platform-on-Aug-15/2016/07/03/article3511927.ece
Randler, C., Horzum, M. B., & Vollmer, C. (2014). The influence of personality and chronotype on distance learning willingness and anxiety among vocational high school students in Turkey. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(6).
Rostaminezhad, M. A., Mozayani, N., Norozi, D., & Iziy, M. (2013). Factors Related to E-learner Dropout: Case Study of IUST Elearning Center. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 83, 522-527. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.100
Rovai, A. P. (2002). Building Sense of Community at a Distance. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 3(1).
Rovai, A. P., Ponton, M. K., & Baker, J. D. (2008). Distance learning in higher education: A programmatic approach to planning, design, instruction, evaluation, and accreditation. New York: Teachers College Press.
Sagin Simsek, C. S. (2008). Students’ attitudes towards integration of ICTs in a reading course: A case in Turkey. Computers & Education, 51(1), 200-211. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.05.002
Sahin, I., & Shelley, M. (2008). Considering Students’ Perceptions: The Distance Education Student Satisfaction Model. Educational Technology & Society, 11(3), 216-223.
Salisbury, C., Burgess, A., Lattimer, V., Heaney, D., Walker, J., Turnbull, J., & Smith, H. (2005). Developing a standard short questionnaire for the assessment of patient satisfaction with out-of-hours primary care. Family practice, 22(5), 560-569.
Schoech, D. (2000). Teaching over the Internet: Results of one doctoral course. Research on Social Work Practice, 10(4), 467-487.
Schoenfeld-Tacher, R., McConnell, S., & Graham, M. (2001). Do No Harm—A Comparison of the Effects of On-Line vs. Traditional Delivery Media on a Science Course. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 10(3), 257-265. doi:10.1023/A:1016690600795
Schulze, A. S. (2014). Massive open online courses (MOOCs) and completion rates: Are self-directed adult learners the most successful at MOOCs? Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1549976283?
Shah, D. (2015). By The Numbers: MOOCS in 2015. Retrieved from https://www.class-central.com/report/moocs-2015-stats/
Short, J. A., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Smith , P. J. (2005). Learning preferences and readiness for online learning. Educational Psychology, 25(1), 3-12. doi:10.1080/0144341042000294868
Smith, P. J., Murphy, K. L., & Mahoney, S. E. (2003). Towards Identifying Factors Underlying Readiness for Online Learning: An Exploratory Study. Distance Education, 24(1), 57-67. doi:10.1080/01587910303043
Stewart, B. L. (2004). Online learning: a strategy for social responsibility in educational access. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(4), 299-310. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.09.003
Taher, A. M. M., Chen, J., & Yao, W. (2011). Key predictors of creative MBA students’ performance: Personality type and learning approaches. Journal of Technology Management, 6(1), 43-68.
Tu, C.-H. (2000). On-line learning migration: from social learning theory to social presence theory in a CMC environment. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 23(1), 27-37. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jnca.1999.0099
Tu, C.-H., & McIsaac, M. (2002). The Relationship of Social Presence and Interaction in Online Classes. American Journal of Distance Education, 16(3), 131-150. doi:10.1207/S15389286AJDE1603_2
Tung, L. C. (2012). Proactive Intervention Strategies for Improving Online Student Retention in a Malaysian Distance Education Institution. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 8(4), 312-323.
Uzuner, S. (2009). Questions of culture in distance learning: A research review. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 10(3), 1-11.
Van Bragt, C. a. C., Bakx, A. W. E. a., Bergen, T. C. M., & Croon, M. a. (2010). Looking for students’ personal characteristics predicting study outcome. Higher Education, 61(1), 59-75. doi:10.1007/s10734-010-9325-7
Vedel, A. (2014). The Big Five and tertiary academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 71, 66-76. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.011
Vrasidas, C., & McIsaac, M. S. (2000). Principles of pedagogy and evaluation for Web-based learning. Educational Media International, 37(2), 105-112.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: Interaction between learning and development. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.
Wang, A. Y., & Newlin, M. H. (2002). Predictors of web-student performance: the role of self-efficacy and reasons for taking an on-line class. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(2), 151-163. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(01)00042-5
Wang, C.-H., Shannon, D. M., & Ross, M. E. (2013). Students’ characteristics, self-regulated learning, technology self-efficacy, and course outcomes in online learning. Distance Education, 34(3), 302-323. doi:10.1080/01587919.2013.835779
Wang, M. (2007). Designing online courses that effectively engage learners from diverse cultural backgrounds. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(2), 294-311. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00626.x
Wang, Y. D. (2014). Building student trust in online learning environments. Distance Education, 35(3), 345-359. doi:10.1080/01587919.2015.955267
Wei, C.-W., Chen, N.-S., & Kinshuk. (2012). A model for social presence in online classrooms. Educational Technology Research and Development, 60(3), 529-545. doi:10.1007/s11423-012-9234-9
Wikipedia. (2016). List of languages by total number of speakers. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=List_of_languages_by_total_number_of_speakers&id=726089308
Wong, L.-H. (2012). A learner-centric view of mobile seamless learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(1), E19-E23. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01245.x
Woods, R. H., & Baker, J. D. (2004). Interaction and immediacy in online learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 5(2).
Wu, Y.-F. (2011). An exploration of concise redundancy in online multimedia learning. (3493638 Ph.D.), University of Northern Colorado, Colorado. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.source.unco.edu/docview/919522938?accountid=12832
Xie, K., Miller, N. C., & Allison, J. R. (2013). Toward a social conflict evolution model: Examining the adverse power of conflictual social interaction in online learning. Computers & Education, 63, 404-415. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.01.003
Yang, J., Huiju, Y., Cen, S.-J., & Huang, R. (2014). Strategies for Smooth and Effective Cross-Cultural Online Collaborative Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 17(3), 208-221.
You, J. W. (2016). Identifying significant indicators using LMS data to predict course achievement in online learning. The Internet and Higher Education, 29, 23-30. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.11.003
Yu, T. (2014). An exploratory factor analysis and reliability analysis of the student online learning readiness (SOLR) instrument. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1683135618?accountid=14228
Zellner, K. S. (2011). Measuring and Improving Online Student Retention. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/ie/sites/www.uky.edu.ie/files/uploads/EAB_RM_Measuring-and-Improving-Online-Student-Retention.pdf.
Zhan, Z., Xu, F., & Ye, H. (2011). Effects of an online learning community on active and reflective learners’ learning performance and attitudes in a face-to-face undergraduate course. Computers & Education, 56(4), 961-968. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.11.012
Zhang, W. Y., Perris, K., & Yeung, L. (2005). Online tutorial support in open and distance learning: Students’ perceptions. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(5), 789-804.
Zhou, M. (2015). Moderating effect of self-determination in the relationship between Big Five personality and academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 385-389. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.005
Zhou, T., & Lu, Y. (2011). The Effects of Personality Traits on User Acceptance of Mobile Commerce. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 27(6), 545-561. doi:10.1080/10447318.2011.555298
Zhu, C. (2012). Student Satisfaction, Performance, and Knowledge Construction in Online Collaborative Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 15(1), 127-136.
Zhu, E., McKnight, R., & Edwards, N. (2009). Principles of online design. Retrieved from http://www.fgcu.edu/onlinedesign/index.html