Employees’ well-being in the workplace is paid more attention nowadays because people’s work and life are inseparable. Job performance has a huge impact on the employee’s mental state and vice versa. Setting a challenging goal is an organizational strategy for motivating employees to reach higher performance. It is not surprising that exceedingly difficult goals raise goal-striving stress and damage employee’s subjective well-being. This study examined the psychological consequence of exceedingly difficult goals in goal-setting theory and provided companies with directions to solve this issue. The number of valid questionnaires were collected 356 Taiwanese high-tech engineers via online survey through the PTT tech-job page. We analyzed the data by PROCESS and tested the mediation effect of goal-striving stress on the negative relationship between exceedingly difficult goals and subjective well-being and also emotion regulation with two dimensions of cognitive appraisal and expressive suppression had significant moderation on the indirect effect of exceedingly difficult goal on subjective well-being via goal-striving stress. This study found that goal-striving stress mediated the effect of exceedingly difficult goals on subjective well-being, and only expressive suppression moderated the indirect effect of exceedingly difficult goal on subjective well-being via goal-striving stress rather than cognitive appraisal. This study fulfilled the research gap on the consequence of over challenging goals applied by goal-setting theory and expand the literatures on emotion regulation strategy selecting. We highly recommend companies starting to revisit their motivation strategy, develop stress management and emotion regulation training courses, and set proper support policies to improve employees’ well-being.

Aldao, A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2013). One versus many: Capturing the use of multiple emotion regulation strategies in response to an emotion-eliciting stimulus. Cognition & Emotion, 27(4), 753-760. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.739998
Almeida‐Filho, N. D. (1987). Social epidemiology of mental disorders: A review of Latin‐American studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 75(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1987.tb02744.x
Appleton, A. A., Buka, S. L., Loucks, E. B., Gilman, S. E., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2013). Divergent associations of adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies with inflammation. Health Psychology, 32(7), 748-756. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030068
Appleton, A. A., Loucks, E. B., Buka, S. L., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2014). Divergent associations of antecedent-and response-focused emotion regulation strategies with midlife cardiovascular disease risk. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 48(2), 246-255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-014-9600-4
Askenazy, P. (2004). Shorter work time, hours flexibility, and labor intensification. Eastern Economic Journal, 30(4), 603-614. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40326151
Averill, J. R. (1980). A constructivist view of emotion. In R. Plutchik, & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Theories of emotion (pp. 305-339). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-558701-3.50018-1
Bakker, A. B., & Oerlemans, W. (2011). Subjective well-being in organizations. In K. Cameron & G. Spreitzer (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship (pp.178-189). Oxford University Press.
Bakker, A. B., Emmerik, H. V., & Euwema, M. C. (2006). Crossover of burnout and engagement in work teams. Work and Occupations, 33(4), 464-489. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888406291310
Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 1017–1028. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017
Barrera, M., Sandler, I. N., & Ramsay, T. B. (1981). Preliminary development of a scale of social support: Studies on college students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9(4), 435-447.
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588-606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588
Burman, J. T., Green, C. D., & Shanker, S. (2015). On the meanings of self‐regulation: Digital humanities in service of conceptual clarity. Child Development, 86(5), 1507-1521. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12395
Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific?. Emotion, 7(1), 30-48. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30
Byrne, B. M. (1991). The Maslach burnout inventory: Validating factorial structure and invariance across intermediate, secondary and university educators. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26(4), 583-605. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2604_2
Caes, L., Vervoort, T., Devos, P., Verlooy, J., Benoit, Y., & Goubert, L. (2014). Parental distress and catastrophic thoughts about child pain: Implications for parental protective behavior in the context of child leukemia-related medical procedures. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 30(9), 787-799. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000028
Cameron, L. D., & Overall, N. C. (2018). Suppression and expression as distinct emotion-regulation processes in daily interactions: Longitudinal and meta-analyses. Emotion, 18(4), 465-480. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000334
Carson, P. P., Carson, K. D., & Heady, R. B. (1994). Cecil Alec Mace: The man who discovered goal-setting. International Journal of Public Administration, 17(9), 1679-1708. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900699408524960
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Outcome expectancy, locus of attribution for expectancy, and self-directed attention as determinants of evaluations and performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18(2), 184-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(82)90049-X
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97(1), 19-35. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.19
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2000). On the structure of behavioral self-regulation. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 41-84). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50032-9
Chang, X., Zhou, Y., Wang, C., & de Pablos Heredero, C. (2017). How do work-family balance practices affect work-family conflict? The differential roles of work stress. Frontiers of Business Research in China, 11(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11782-017-0008-4
Chervonsky, E., & Hunt, C. (2017). Suppression and expression of emotion in social and interpersonal outcomes: A meta-analysis. Emotion, 17(4), 669-683. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000270
Chipperfield, J. G., & Havens, B. (2001). Gender differences in the relationship between marital status transitions and life satisfaction in later life. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56(3), 176-186. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/56.3.P176
Cicchetti, D., Ackerman, B. P., & Izard, C. E. (1995). Emotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 7(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400006301
Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci, & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). University of Rochester Press.
Diener, E. D., & Suh, M. E. (1997). Subjective well-being and age: An international analysis. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 17(1), 304-324. https://doi.org/ 10.1891/0198-8794.17.1.304
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403-425. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056
Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J., & Delgadillo‐Chase, D. (2017). If, why, and when subjective well‐being influences health, and future needed research. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 9(2), 133-167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12090
Diener, E., Sandvik, E., & Larsen, R. J. (1985). Age and sex effects for emotional intensity. Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 542-546. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.21.3.542
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276-302. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276
Dixon-Gordon, K. L., Aldao, A., & De Los Reyes, A. (2015). Repertoires of emotion regulation: A person-centered approach to assessing emotion regulation strategies and links to psychopathology. Cognition and Emotion, 29(7), 1314-1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.983046
Dooley, L. M., Alizadeh, A., Qiu, S., & Wu, H. (2020). Does servant leadership moderate the relationship between job stress and physical health?. Sustainability, 12(16), 6591. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166591
Doré, B. P., Weber, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2017). Neural predictors of decisions to cognitively control emotion. Journal of Neuroscience, 37(10), 2580-2588. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2526-16.2016
Drach-Zahavy, A., & Erez, M. (2002). Challenge versus threat effects on the goal–performance relationship. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 88(2), 667-682. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00004-3
Dressler, W. W. (1988). Social consistency and psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29(1), 79-91. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137182
Drucker, P. (2006). The practice of management. Harper Business. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080942360
Du, H., King, R. B., & Chi, P. (2017). Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem. Plos One, 12(8), e0183958. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183958
Ellsworth, P. C. (1991). Some implications of cognitive appraisal theories of emotion. In K.T. Strongman (Ed.), International review of studies on emotion (pp. 143-161). Wiley.
Emmons, R. A. (1986). Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(5), 1058-1068. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.5.1058
English, T., John, O. P., Srivastava, S., & Gross, J. J. (2012). Emotion regulation and peer-rated social functioning: A 4-year longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(6), 780-784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.09.006
Erez, M., & Zidon, I. (1984). Effect of goal acceptance on the relationship of goal difficulty to performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(1), 69-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.69.1.69
Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 272-299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272
Fernández-Ballesteros, R., Zamarrón, M. D., & Ruiz, M. A. (2001). The contribution of socio-demographic and psychosocial factors to life satisfaction. Ageing & Society, 21(1), 25-43. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X01008078
Ford, B. Q., Lam, P., John, O. P., & Mauss, I. B. (2018). The psychological health benefits of accepting negative emotions and thoughts: Laboratory, diary, and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 115(6), 1075-1092. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000157
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Freire, C., & Bettencourt, C. (2021). The effect of work–family conflict and hindrance stress on nurses’ satisfaction: The role of ethical leadership. Personnel Review. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-05-2020-0379
Fridlund, A. J. (2014). Human facial expression: An evolutionary view. Academic Press.
Fujita, F., Diener, E., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Gender differences in negative affect and well-being: The case for emotional intensity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(3), 427-434. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.427
Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., Impett, E. A., & Asher, E. R. (2004). What do you do when things go right? The intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits of sharing positive events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 228-245. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.228
Geng, Z., Liu, C., Liu, X., & Feng, J. (2014). The effects of emotional labor on frontline employee creativity. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 26(7), 1046-1064. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-12-2012-0244
Gil-Beltrán, E., Meneghel, I., Llorens, S., & Salanova, M. (2020). Get vigorous with physical exercise and improve your well-being at Work!. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6384. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176384
Glover, L. M., Cain‐Shields, L. R., Spruill, T. M., O’Brien, E. C., Barber, S., Loehr, L., & Sims, M. (2020). Goal‐striving stress and incident cardiovascular disease in blacks: The Jackson Heart Study. Journal of the American Heart Association, 9(9), e015707. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.119.015707
Goldin, P. R., McRae, K., Ramel, W., & Gross, J. J. (2008). The neural bases of emotion regulation: Reappraisal and suppression of negative emotion. Biological Psychiatry, 63(6), 577-586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.031
González-Carrasco, M., Sáez, M., & Casas, F. (2020). Subjective Well-Being in Early Adolescence: Observations from a Five-Year Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(21), 8249-8269. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218249
Gottman, J. M., Coan, J., Carrere, S., & Swanson, C. (1998). Predicting marital happiness and stability from newlywed interactions. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(1), 5-22. https://doi.org/10.2307/353438
Grant, A.M. (2012). An integrated model of goal-focused coaching: An evidence-based framework for teaching and practice. International Coaching Psychology Review, 7(2), 146-165. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119656913.ch7
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271-299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J. (1999). Emotion regulation: Past, present, future. Cognition & Emotion, 13(5), 551-573. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379186
Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotion regulation in adulthood: Timing is everything. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(6), 214-219. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00152
Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281-291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048577201393198
Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781
Gross, J. J. (2013). Handbook of emotion regulation. Guilford publications.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (1996). Mapping the domain of emotional expressivity. Manuscript Submitted for Publication.
Gross, J. J., & Jazaieri, H. (2014). Emotion, emotion regulation, and psychopathology: An affective science perspective. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(4), 387-401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614536164
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348-362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
Gross, J. J., Richards, J. M., & John, O. P. (2006). Emotion Regulation in Everyday Life. In D. K. Snyder, J. Simpson, & J. N. Hughes (Eds.), Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health (pp. 13-35). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11468-001
Gross, K., & D’ambrosio, L. (2004). Framing emotional response. Political Psychology, 25(1), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00354.x
Gu, H., Duverger, P., & Yu, L. (2017). Can innovative behavior be led by management? A study from the lodging business. Tourism Management, 63, 144-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.06.010
Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011). Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A dual-process framework. Cognition and Emotion, 25(3), 400-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.544160
Haga, S. M., Kraft, P., & Corby, E. K. (2009). Emotion regulation: Antecedents and well-being outcomes of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in cross-cultural samples. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(3), 271-291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-007-9080-3
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2010). Multivariate data analysis a global perspective (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River.
Haring-Hidore, M., Stock, W. A., Okun, M. A., & Witter, R. A. (1985). Marital status and subjective well-being: A research synthesis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(4), 947-953. https://doi.org/10.2307/352338
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: Methodology in the social sciences. Guilford Press.
Hayes, A. F. (2015). An index and test of linear moderated mediation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 50(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.962683
Heslin, P. A., Carson, J. B., & VandeWalle, D. (2009). Practical applications of goal-setting theory to performance management. In J. W. Smither, & M. London (Eds.), Performance management: Putting research into action (pp. 89-113). Jossey-Bass.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
International Labour Organization. (2016). Workplace stress: A collective challenge. Labour Administration, Labour Inspection and Occupational Safety and Health.
Inglehart, R. (1999). Values, ideology, and cognitive mobilization in new social movements. In M. Waters (Ed.), Modernity: After modernity (pp. 373-396). Routledge.
Inzlicht, M., Legault, L., & Teper, R. (2014). Exploring the mechanisms of self-control improvement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(4), 302-307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414534256
Ipsen, C., Karanika-Murray, M., & Nardelli, G. (2020). Addressing mental health and organisational performance in tandem: A challenge and an opportunity for bringing together what belongs together. Work & Stress, 34(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2020.1719555
Ivcevic, Z., & Brackett, M. (2014). Predicting school success: Comparing conscientiousness, grit, and emotion regulation ability. Journal of Research in Personality, 52, 29-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.06.005
Jahoda, M. (1958). Current concepts of positive mental health. Basic Books https://doi.org/10.1037/11258-000
John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301-1334. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x
Johnson, D. R., & Wu, J. (2002). An empirical test of crisis, social selection, and role explanations of the relationship between marital disruption and psychological distress: A pooled time‐series analysis of four‐wave panel data. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(1), 211-224. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00211.x
Kalokerinos, E. K., Greenaway, K. H., Pedder, D. J., & Margetts, E. A. (2014). Don’t grin when you win: The social costs of positive emotion expression in performance situations. Emotion, 14(1), 180-186. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034442
Karanika-Murray, M., & Cooper, C. (2020). Introduction: Understanding the return-to-work experience for parents: What is and what could be. In M. Karanika-Murray, & C. Cooper (Eds.), Navigating the return-to-work experience for new parents (pp. 1-9). Routledge.
Karatepe, O. M., Yavas, U., Babakus, E., & Deitz, G. D. (2018). The effects of organizational and personal resources on stress, engagement, and job outcomes. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 74, 147-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.04.005
Kerr, J. H., & Vos, M. C. (1993). Employee fitness programmes, absenteeism and general well-being. Work & Stress, 7(2), 179-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678379308257059
Khan, M. I., Butt, T. H., Abid, G., & Rehman, S. (2020). The balance between work and life for subjective well-being: A moderated mediation model. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 6(4), 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc6040127
Koestner, R., Lekes, N., Powers, T.A., & Chicoine, E. (2002). Attaining personal goals: Self-concordance plus implementation intentions equals success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.231
Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23(1), 4-41. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802619031
Kruglanski, A. W. (1996). Goals as knowledge structures. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 599-618). The Guilford Press.
Kuo, W. (1976). Theories of migration and mental health: An empirical testing on Chinese-Americans. Social Science & Medicine, 10(6), 297-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-7856(76)90074-3
Kuykendall, L., & Tay, L. (2015). Employee subjective well-being and physiological functioning: An integrative model. Health Psychology Open, 2(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102915592090
Lakey, B., Orehek, E., Hain, K. L., & VanVleet, M. (2010). Enacted support’s links to negative affect and perceived support are more consistent with theory when social influences are isolated from trait influences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(1), 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209349375
Larsen, R. J. (2000). Toward a science of mood regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 11(3), 129-141. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1103_01
Latham, G. P. (2004). The motivational benefits of goal-setting. Academy of Management Perspectives, 18(4), 126-129. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.2004.15268727
Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (2006). Enhancing the benefits and overcoming the pitfalls of goal setting. Organizational Dynamics, 35(4), 332-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2006.08.008
Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (2007). New developments in and directions for goal-setting research. European Psychologist, 12(4), 290-300. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.12.4.290
Lazarus, R. S., & Alfert, E. (1964). Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69(2), 195-205. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0044635
Lee, G. R., Netzer, J. K., & Coward, R. T. (1995). Depression among older parents: The role of intergenerational exchange. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(3), 823-833. https://doi.org/10.2307/353935
LePine, J. A., Podsakoff, N. P., & LePine, M. A. (2005). A meta-analytic test of the challenge stressor–hindrance stressor framework: An explanation for inconsistent relationships among stressors and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48(5), 764-775. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2005.18803921
Lepore, S. J., Glaser, D. B., & Roberts, K. J. (2008). On the positive relation between received social support and negative affect: A test of the triage and self‐esteem threat models in women with breast cancer. Psycho‐Oncology, 17(12), 1210-1215. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.1347
Levenson, R. W. (1994). Human emotions: A functional view. In P. Ekman, & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotions: Fundamental questions (pp. 123–126). Oxford University Press.
Leventhal, H., Leventhal, E. A., & Contrada, R. J. (1998). Self-regulation, health, and behavior: A perceptual-cognitive approach. Psychology and Health, 13(4), 717-733. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870449808407425
Li, M., & Zhang, H. Y. G. (2018). How employees react to a narcissistic leader? The role of work stress in relationship between perceived leader narcissism and employees’ organizational citizenship behaviors to supervisor. International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 20(3), 83-97. https://doi.org/10.32604/IJMHP.2018.010806
Liu, C. E., Yuan, X., Hu, C., Liu, T., Chen, Y., & He, W. (2020). Work-related identity discrepancy and counterproductive work behavior: The role of emotional exhaustion and supervisor incivility. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(16), 5747. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165747
Locke, E. A. (1966). The relationship of intentions to level of performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 50(1), 60-66. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022937
Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3(2), 157-189. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(68)90004-4
Locke, E. A. & Latham, G. P. (1984). Goal setting: A motivational technique that works!, Englewood Cliffs.
Locke, E. A., & Bryan, J. F. (1969). The directing function of goals in task performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(69)90030-0
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265-268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013). New developments in goal setting and task performance. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1026/0932-4089/a000155
Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969–1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90(1), 125-152. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.125
London, M. (2003). Job feedback: Giving, seeking, and using feedback for performance improvement. Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410608871
Lu, L. (2006). Cultural fit: Individual and societal discrepancies in values, beliefs and subjective well-being. The Journal of Social Psychology, 146(2), 203-221. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.146.2.203-221
Lu, L., & Hu, C. H. (2005). Personality, leisure experiences and happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6(3), 325-342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-8628-3
Lu, L., & Lin, Y. Y. (1998). Family roles and happiness in adulthood. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(2), 195-207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00009-9
Lu, L., & Shih, J. B. (1997). Sources of happiness: A qualitative approach. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137(2), 181-187. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224549709595429
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L. & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?. Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803-855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
Mann, T., De Ridder, D., & Fujita, K. (2013). Self-regulation of health behavior: Social psychological approaches to goal setting and goal striving. Health Psychology, 32(5), 487-498. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028533
Martela, F., & Sheldon, K. M. (2019). Clarifying the concept of well-being: Psychological need satisfaction as the common core connecting eudaimonic and subjective well-being. Review of General Psychology, 23(4), 458-474. https://doi.org/10.1177/1089268019880886
Martins, B., Sheppes, G., Gross, J. J., & Mather, M. (2018). Age differences in emotion regulation choice: Older adults use distraction less than younger adults in high-intensity positive contexts. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 73(4), 603–611. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw028
Maslow, A. H. (1981). Motivation and personality. Prabhat Prakashan.
Mawritz, M. B., Folger, R., & Latham, G. P. (2014). Supervisors’ exceedingly difficult goals and abusive supervision: The mediating effects of hindrance stress, anger, and anxiety. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(3), 358-372. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1879
Melin, R., Fugl-Meyer, K. S., & Fugl-Meyer, A. R. (2003). Life satisfaction in 18-to 64-year-old Swedes: In relation to education, employment situation, health and physical activity. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 35(2), 84–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/16501970306119
Mouzon, D. M., Watkins, D. C., Perry, R., Simpson, T. M., & Mitchell, J. A. (2019). Intergenerational mobility and goal-striving stress among black Americans: The roles of ethnicity and nativity status. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 21(2), 393-400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-018-0735-4
Nadinloyi, K. B., Sadeghi, H., & Hajloo, N. (2013). Relationship between job satisfaction and employees mental health. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 293-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.554
Neighbors, H. W., Sellers, S. L., Zhang, R., & Jackson, J. S. (2011). Goal-striving stress and racial differences in mental health. Race and Social Problems, 3(1), 51-62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-011-9042-6
Newsom, J. T., & Schulz, R. (1996). Social support as a mediator in the relation between functional status and quality of life in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 11(1), 34-44.
Niven, K., Totterdell, P., & Holman, D. (2009). A classification of controlled interpersonal affect regulation strategies. Emotion, 9(4), 498-509. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015962
Okazaki, S. (2002). Self-other agreement on affective distress scales in Asian Americans and White Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(4), 428-437. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.4.428
Okulicz-Kozaryn, A. (2011). Europeans work to live and Americans live to work (who is happy to work more: Americans or Europeans?). Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(2), 225-243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-010-9188-8
Opitz, P. C., Cavanagh, S. R., & Urry, H. L. (2015). Uninstructed emotion regulation choice in four studies of cognitive reappraisal. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 455-464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.048
Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge University Press.
Parekh, R. (2018, August). What Is Mental Illness?. American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved December 26, 2020, from https://reurl.cc/O0m6YD
Parker, S., & Kleiner, R. J. (1966). Mental illness in the urban Negro community. Free Press.
Parkinson, B., Totterdell, P., Briner, R. B., & Reynolds, S. (1996). Changing moods: The psychology of mood and mood regulation. Longman.
Peccei, R., & Van De Voorde, K. (2019). The application of the multilevel paradigm in human resource management–outcomes research: Taking stock and going forward. Journal of Management, 45(2), 786-818. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316673720
Pinquart, M., & Sörensen, S. (2006). Gender differences in caregiver stressors, social resources, and health: An updated meta-analysis. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(1), 33-45. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/61.1.P33
Prince, M., Patel, V., Saxena, S., Maj, M., Maselko, J., Phillips, M. R., & Rahman, A. (2007). No health without mental health. The Lancet, 370(9590), 859-877. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61238-0
Purol, M. F., Keller, V. N., Oh, J., Chopik, W. J., & Lucas, R. E. (2020). Loved and lost or never loved at all? Lifelong marital histories and their links with subjective well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1791946
Quoidbach, J., Berry, E. V., Hansenne, M., & Mikolajczak, M. (2010). Positive emotion regulation and well-being: Comparing the impact of eight savoring and dampening strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 368-373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.048
Revenson, T. A. (1994). Social support and marital coping with chronic illness. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 16(2), 122-130. https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/16.2.122
Robinson, M. D., & Johnson, J. T. (1997). Is it emotion or is it stress? Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experience. Sex Roles, 36(3-4), 235-258.
Robinson, M. D., Johnson, J. T., & Shields, S. A. (1998). The gender heuristic and the database: Factors affecting the perception of gender-related differences in the experience and display of emotions. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20(3), 206-219. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2003_3
Roney, C. J., Higgins, E. T., & Shah, J. (1995). Goals and framing: How outcome focus influences motivation and emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(11), 1151-1160. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672952111003
Rose, G., & Smith, L. (2018). Mental health recovery, goal setting and working alliance in an Australian community-managed organisation. Health Psychology Open, 5(1), 2055102918774674. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102918774674
Roseman, I. J. (1991). Appraisal determinants of discrete emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 5(3), 161-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939108411034
Ross, C. E., Mirowsky, J., & Goldsteen, K. (1990). The impact of the family on health: The decade in review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52(4), 1059-1078. http://www.jstor.org/stable/353319
Rudolf, R. (2014). Work shorter, be happier? Longitudinal evidence from the Korean five-day working policy. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(5), 1139-1163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9468-1
Samson, A. C., & Gross, J. J. (2012). Humour as emotion regulation: The differential consequences of negative versus positive humour. Cognition & Emotion, 26(2), 375-384. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2011.585069
Schone, B. S., & Weinick, R. M. (1998). Health-related behaviors and the benefits of marriage for elderly persons. The Gerontologist, 38(5), 618-627. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/38.5.618
Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(3), 513-523. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.3.513
Seijts, G. H., & Latham, G. P. (2001). The effect of distal learning, outcome, and proximal goals on a moderately complex task. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(3), 291-307. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.70
Seligman, M. E., Railton, P., Baumeister, R. F., & Sripada, C. (2013). Navigating into the future or driven by the past. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(2), 119-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612474317
Sellers, S. L., & Neighbors, H. W. (1999). Goal-striving stress, social economic status, and the mental health of black Americans (pp. 469-473). Annals New York Academy of Sciences.
Sellers, S. L., & Neighbors, H. W. (2008). Effects of goal-striving stress on the mental health of black Americans. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(1), 92-103. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650804900107
Sellers, S. L., Neighbors, H. W., & Bonham, V. L. (2011). Goal‐striving stress and the mental health of college‐educated Black American Men: The protective effects of system‐blame. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81(4), 507-518. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01116.x
Sellers, S. L., Neighbors, H. W., Zhang, R., & Jackson, J. S. (2012). The impact of goal-striving stress on physical health of white Americans, African Americans, and Caribbean blacks. Ethnicity & Disease, 22(1), 21-28.
Shain, M., & Kramer, D. M. (2004). Health promotion in the workplace: Framing the concept; reviewing the evidence. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 61(7), 643-648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.2004.013193
Shanklin, W. L., & Ryans, J. K. (1984). Organizing for high-tech marketing. Harvard Business Review, 2(4), 483. https://doi.org/10.20801/jsrpim.2.4_483_2
Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1998). Not all personal goals are personal: Comparing autonomous and controlled reasons for goals as predictors of effort and attainment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(5), 546-557. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167298245010
Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., Radu, P., Blechert, J., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation choice: A conceptual framework and supporting evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 163-181. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030831
Shillamkwese, S. S., Tariq, H., Obaid, A., Weng, Q., & Garavan, T. N. (2020). It’s not me, it’s you: Testing a moderated mediation model of subordinate deviance and abusive supervision through the self‐regulatory perspective. Business Ethics: A European Review, 29(1), 227-243. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12245
Shmotkin, D. (1990). Subjective well-being as a function of age and gender: A multivariate look for differentiated trends. Social Indicators Research, 23(3), 201-230.
Siedlecki, K. L., Salthouse, T. A., Oishi, S., & Jeswani, S. (2014). The relationship between social support and subjective well-being across age. Social Indicators Research, 117(2), 561-576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0361-4
Silvers, J. A., Weber, J., Wager, T. D., & Ochsner, K. N. (2015). Bad and worse: Neural systems underlying reappraisal of high-and low-intensity negative emotions. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(2), 172-179. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsu043
Simon, H. A. (1967). Motivational and emotional controls of cognition. Psychological Review, 74(1), 29-39. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024127
Smith III, A. C., & Kleinman, S. (1989). Managing emotions in medical school: Students’ contacts with the living and the dead. Social Psychology Quarterly, 52(1), 56-69. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786904
Smith C. A., & Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press on Demand.
Smith, A. L., Ntoumanis, N., Duda, J. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2011). Goal striving, coping, and well-being: A prospective investigation of the self-concordance model in sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(1), 124-145. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.1.124
Song, Y. J., & Lee, Y. S. (2021). Work hours, work schedules, and subjective well-being in korea. International Sociology, 36(1), 25-48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580920949724
Sonnentag, S. (2002). Performance, well-being and self-regulation. Psychological Management of Individual Performance (pp. 405-424). John Wiley & Sons.
Srivastava, S., Chauhan, S., Muhammad, T., Simon, D. J., Kumar, P., Patel, R., & Singh, S. K. (2021). Older adults’ psychological and subjective well-being as a function of household decision making role: Evidence from cross-sectional survey in India. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 10, 100676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cegh.2020.100676
Steinmayr, R., Wirthwein, L., Modler, L., & Barry, M. M. (2019). Development of subjective well-being in adolescence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(19), 3690-3713. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193690
Stoica, T., Knight, L. K., Naaz, F., Patton, S. C., & Depue, B. E. (2021). Gender differences in functional connectivity during emotion regulation. Neuropsychologia, 156, 107829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107829
Super, D. (1957). Psychology and Careers, Harper and Row.
Susskind, J. M., Lee, D. H., Cusi, A., Feiman, R., Grabski, W., & Anderson, A. K. (2008). Expressing fear enhances sensory acquisition. Nature Neuroscience, 11(7), 843-850. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2138
Sutton, R. I. (1991). Maintaining norms about expressed emotions: The case of bill collectors. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(2), 245-268. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393355
Tamir, M. (2011). The maturing field of emotion regulation. Emotion Review, 3(1), 3-7. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910388685
Tamir, M., Schwartz, S. H., Oishi, S., & Kim, M. Y. (2017). The secret to happiness: Feeling good or feeling right?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(10), 1448-1459. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000303
Tamir, M., Vishkin, A., & Gutentag, T. (2020). Emotion regulation is motivated. Emotion, 20(1), 115-119. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000635
Tavris, C. (1984). On the wisdom of counting to ten: Personal and social dangers of anger expression. Review of Personality & Social Psychology, 5, 170-191.
Thomas, P. A. (2010). Is it better to give or to receive? Social support and the well-being of older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B(3), 351-357. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp113
Thompson, R. A. (1991). Emotional regulation and emotional development. Educational Psychology Review, 3(4), 269-307. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01319934
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3), 25-52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.x
Urry, H. L., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Emotion regulation in older age. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 352-357. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410388395
Van De Voorde, K., Paauwe, J., & Van Veldhoven, M. (2012). Employee well‐being and the HRM–organizational performance relationship: A review of quantitative studies. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14(4), 391-407. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00322.x
Vuillier, L., Joseph, J., Somerville, M. P., & Harrison, A. (2021). Believing emotions are uncontrollable is linked to eating disorder psychopathology via suppression and reappraisal. Journal of Eating Disorders, 9(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-021-00395-8
Waite, L. J., & Gallagher, M. (2001). The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier, and better off financially. Crown Publishing Group.
Wierzbicka, A. (1993). A conceptual basis for cultural psychology. Ethos, 21(2), 205-231. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.1993.21.2.02a00040
Wierzbicka, A. (1994). Emotion, language, and cultural scripts. In S. E. Kitayama & H. R. Markus (Eds.), Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence (pp. 133–196). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10152-004
Wiese, B. S., & Freund, A. M. (2005). Goal progress makes one happy, or does it? Longitudinal findings from the work domain. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78(2), 287-304. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X26714
Wolf, E. B., Lee, J. J., Sah, S., & Brooks, A. W. (2016). Managing perceptions of distress at work: Reframing emotion as passion. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 137, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2016.07.003
Wood, W., Rhodes, N., & Whelan, M. (1989). Sex differences in positive well-being: A consideration of emotional style and marital status. Psychological Bulletin, 106(2), 249-264.
World Health Organization. (June, 2018). Mental Health: Strengthening Our Response. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengthening-our-response
World Health Organization. (January, 2020). Depression. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
Wright, T. A., Cropanzano, R., & Bonett, D. G. (2007). The moderating role of employee positive wellbeing on the relation between job satisfaction and job performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(2), 93-104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.93
Yang, T., Ma, M., Zhu, M., Liu, Y., Chen, Q., Zhang, S., & Deng, J. (2017). Challenge or hindrance: Does job stress affect presenteeism among Chinese healthcare workers?. Journal of Occupational Health, 60(2), 163-171. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.17-0195-OA
Yuan, Z., Li, Y., & Lin, J. (2014). Linking challenge and hindrance stress to safety performance: The moderating effect of core self-evaluation. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 154-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.025
Zelenski, J. M., Murphy, S. A., & Jenkins, D. A. (2008). The happy-productive worker thesis revisited. Journal of Happiness studies, 9(4), 521-537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-008-9087-4
Zetik, D. C., & Stuhlmacher, A. F. (2002). Goal setting and negotiation performance: A meta-analysis. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 5(1), 35-52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430202005001537