Abstract
The purpose of this series of studies was to provide insights into instructional design of scientific practices including teaching strategies, learning goals, inquiry skills, understanding about nature of scientific inquiry, nature of science (NOS), and inquiry types for scientific practices through content analysis of literature and textbook analysis. Three studies were conducted to analyze the characteristics of scientific practices in the selected published articles and textbooks. Analyzing published articles can give us knowledge of what teaching strategies have developed and how these strategies have been used to achieve teaching goals for scientific practices. Meanwhile, textbook analysis gives us knowledge of what inquiry skills, nature of scientific inquiry, and nature of science have been addressed in teaching materials. In addition, the inquiry type was identified for each inquiry activity. The findings of this series of studies could be used to improve instructional designs and to support teachers’ science teaching and their adoption of scientific practices.
The major findings of study 1 include: (1) student-centered teaching strategies (e.g., experimenting and discussing) were adopted more than teacher-centered strategies, (2) a combination of experimenting and discussing were the most used teaching strategies, and were mostly used to achieve the cognitive and affective teaching goals, and (3) teaching strategies for scientific practice had large positive effects on the cognitive aspect.
The usage of teaching strategies for scientific practices to achieve teaching goals was considered as an important aspect of scientific practices to elicit students’ habits of mind and practices. Thus, study 1 suggested paying more attention to the four teaching goals in science education. To support the success of promoting teaching goals for scientific practices, textbooks used in the classroom must design activities for scientific practices by setting teaching goals related to cognitive, affective, epistemic, and sociocultural aspects. Therefore, study 2 analyzed physics textbooks from Indonesia through the lens of inquiry. Study 2 did not just analyze physics activities, but also identified the content in the textbooks. The significant findings include: (1) more physics topics focused on the cognitive than on the epistemic, affective, and sociocultural aspects in these textbooks, (2) nature of science was emphasized in the textbooks, but they were more focused on science as a cognitive-epistemic system, and (3) structured inquiry was more emphasized than confirmed and guided inquiry.
In studies 1 and 2, this study found that cognitive aspects were mostly emphasized in the articles and textbooks. This finding led study 3 to focus on these aspects (content knowledge and inquiry skills). In addition to the learning goals, this study analyzed nature of scientific inquiry aspects to examine whether physics activities expect students to understand the characteristics of scientific inquiry. Also, inquiry types designed for inquiry activities were analyzed to reveal how the inquiry activities were developed. In study 3, an international comparison study was conducted. Secondary physics textbooks were further analyzed from Singapore and Indonesia to identify how inquiry activities are designed in different countries, and which inquiry activities have positive effects on students’ achievement. The major findings of study 3 include: (1) more activities in both the Singaporean and Indonesian textbooks focused on observing and interpreting skills, (2) few activities emphasizing understanding about nature of scientific inquiry, and (3) more guided inquiry in the Singaporean than in the Indonesian textbooks.

References
Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Lederman, N. G. (1998). The nature of science and instructional practice: Making the unnatural natural. Science Education, 82(4), 417-436. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199807)82:4<417::AID-SCE1>3.0.CO;2-E
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2009). The Nature of Science. Retrieved from http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/index.php?chapter =1#B0
Anderson, R. D. (2002). Reforming science teaching: What research says about inquiry. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 13(1), 1-12.
Bartos, S. A., & Lederman, N. G. (2014). Teachers' knowledge structures for nature of science and scientific inquiry: Conceptions and classroom practice. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(9), 1150-1184. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21168
Berland, L. K., Schwarz, C. V., Krist, C., Kenyon, L., Lo, A. S., & Reiser, B. J. (2016). Epistemologies in practice: Making scientific practices meaningful for students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 53(7), 1082-1112. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21257
Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bybee, R. W. (2006). Scientific inquiry and science teaching. In L. Flick & N. Lederman (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and nature of science: Implications for teaching, learning, and teacher education (pp. 1–14). Dordrecht: Springer.
Chen, H.-L. S., & Tytler, R. (2017). Inquiry teaching and learning: Forms, approaches, and embedded views within and across cultures. In M. W. Hackling, J. Ramseger, & H.-L. S. Chen (Eds.), Quality Teaching in Primary Science Education: Cross-cultural Perspectives (pp. 93-122). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Dagher, Z. R., & Erduran, S. (2016). Reconceptualizing the Nature of Science for Science Education: Why Does it Matter? Science and Education, 25(1-2), 147-164. doi:10.1007/s11191-015-9800-8
Dewey, J. (1996). Essays. In L. Hickman (Ed.), Collected work of John Dewey, 1882–1953: The electronic edition. Charlottesville: InteLex Corporation.
Duschl, R. (2008). Science Education in Three-Part Harmony: Balancing Conceptual, Epistemic, and Social Learning Goals. Review of Research in Education, 32(1), 268-291. doi:10.3102/0091732x07309371
Duschl, R. A., & Bybee, R. W. (2014). Planning and carrying out investigations: an entry to learning and to teacher professional development around NGSS science and engineering practices. International Journal of STEM Education, 1(1), 12. doi:10.1186/s40594-014-0012-6
Inkinen, J., Klager, C., Juuti, K., Schneider, B., Salmela-Aro, K., Krajcik, J., & Lavonen, J. (2020). High school students' situational engagement associated with scientific practices in designed science learning situations. Science Education, 104(4), 667-692. doi:10.1002/sce.21570
Krajcik, J. S., & Czerniak, C. M. (2007). Teaching children science in elementary and middle school: A project-based approach. New York: Routledge.
Krajcik, J., Blumenfeld, P. C., Marx, R. W., Bass, K. M., Fredricks, J., & Soloway, E. (1998). Inquiry in Project-Based Science Classrooms: Initial Attempts by Middle School Students. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7(3-4), 313-350. doi:10.1080/10508406.1998.967205
Kuhn, D., Arvidsson, T. S., Lesperance, R., & Corprew, R. (2017). Can Engaging in Science Practices Promote Deep Understanding of Them? Science Education, 101(2), 232-250. doi:10.1002/sce.21263
Lederman, N. G. (2006). Syntax of nature of science within inquiry and science instruction. In L. B. Flick & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and nature of science (pp. 301–317). Dordrecht: Springer.
Lederman, N. G., & Lederman, J. S. (2012). Nature of scientific knowledge and scientific inquiry: Building instructional capacity through professional development. In B. J. Fraser, et al. (Eds.), Second international handbook of science education (pp. 335–359). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer.
Lawson, A. E. (1995). Science teaching and the development of thinking. Belmont: Wadsworth.
National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 Science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
OECD (2019), PISA 2018 Assessment and Analytical Framework, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b25efab8-en.
National Research Council. (2013). Next generation science standards. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Osborne, J. (2014). Teaching Scientific Practices: Meeting the Challenge of Change. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25(2), 177-196. doi:10.1007/s10972-014-9384-1
Schwab, J. J. (1962). The teaching of science as enquiry. In J. J. Schwab & P. F. Brandwein (Eds.), The teaching of science (pp. 1–103). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.