本研究旨在探討國中生社群媒體使用、社群媒體纖瘦或肌肉意象暴露、纖瘦或肌肉理想內化、外貌比較、社群媒體壓力、社群媒體素養與身體意象之間的關係。研究對象為臺北市某國中111學年度七年級至九年級的學生。調查於2023年5月進行，研究工具為結構式問卷，有效樣本為372位學生。結果如下：
一、國中生最常使用的社群媒體是Instagram (IG)，平均每日使用時間超過1小時。
二、國中生的Instagram (IG)使用時間、抖音(Tik Tok)使用時間、整體社群媒體使用時間，以及在Instagram (IG)上的纖瘦或肌肉意象訊息暴露頻率、纖瘦或肌肉理想內化、外貌比較、社群媒體壓力與身體滿意度呈顯著負相關。
三、國中生的社群媒體素養與身體意象(外貌評價、身體滿意度)呈顯著正相關。
四、多元迴歸分析結果顯示：國中生為女生、七年級、肥胖、社群媒體壓力越高、社群媒體素養越低，其外貌評價越低。女生、肥胖、社群媒體使用時間越長、社群媒體壓力越高、社群媒體素養越低，其身體滿意度越低。
根據研究結果，建議學校應將社群媒體素養教育納入課程中，並協助學生建立正向的身體意象觀念。

This study examined the relationship between social media use, exposure to thin or muscular ideals on social media, internalization of thin or muscular body ideals, appearance comparison, social media pressure, social media literacy, and body image among junior high school students. Participants consisted of 372 students in grades 7 to 9 from a junior high school in Taipei City. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire in May 2023. The results were as follows:
1. Instagram (IG) was the most frequently used social media platform, with students spending over an hour on it daily.
2. Students' daily usage time of Instagram, Tik Tok, and social media, exposure to thin or muscular body ideals on Instagram, internalization of body ideals, appearance comparison, and social media pressure were negatively correlated with body satisfaction.
3. Students' social media literacy was positively correlated with body image including appearance evaluation and body satisfaction.
4. Multiple regression analysis indicated that students who were female, 7th graders, obese, who had greater social media pressure, and lower social media literacy were more likely to have lower appearance evaluation. Students who were female, obese, who had greater social media usage time, greater social media pressure, and lower social media literacy were more likely to have lower body satisfaction.
Based on the findings, this study suggests incorporating social media literacy education into school curricula to promote positive body image among students.

中文部分
尤嫣嫣（2002）。大學生體型及其身體意象相關因素之研究－以中原大學新生為例。（博士）。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。
尹蘭（2018）。國中生身體意象與飲食行為之相關研究---以桃園市某國中為例。（碩士）。中華大學，台北市。
文星蘭（2004）。高中職學生身體意象與減重意圖之研究。（碩士）。國立台北護理學院，台北市。
兒童福利聯盟（2019）。2019兒少使用社群軟體狀況調查報告。取自https://www.children.org.tw/publication_research/research_report/726
金車文教基金會（2021）。《青少年手機》不能沒有你？過半數青少年每日滑手機超過3小時。取自https://kingcar.org.tw/survey/501393
施秀如（2009）。台中縣立某國中學生身體意象與體重控制行為之研究。（碩士）。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。
財團法人台灣網路資訊中心（2022）。2022台灣網路報告。取自https://report.twnic.tw/2022/assets/download/TWNIC_TaiwanInternetReport_2022_CH.pdf
張靜惠、黃娟娟（2016）。青少年身體意象與身體活動量之相關研究-以桃園某所國中為例。靜宜體育（10），1-14。
教育部（2002）。媒體素養教育政策白皮書。取自https://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~floratien/gen_whitepaper.files/mediaequipment.pdf
教育部（2014）。十二年國民基本教育課程綱要總綱。取自https://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/LawContent.aspx?id=GL002057
黃小玲、張鳳琴（2021）。國中生網路使用、網路纖瘦意象暴露、身體意象與不健康體重控制行為相關之研究。學校衛生，（75），1-19。
詹慧冠（2008）。國中學生身體意象與體重控制行為相關因素研究-以臺北市松山區國中為例。（碩士）。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。
賈文玲（2001）。青少年身體意象與自尊、社會因素關係之研究。（碩士）。中國文化大學，台北市。
劉珉汝（2020）。青少年的臉書使用行為對身體意象與自尊關係之探討－以高雄市國中生為例。（碩士）。大葉大學，彰化縣。
蔡晴雅（2016）。青少年的身體意象及其預測因子：以新北市某國中為例。（碩士）。國立台北大學，台北市。
衛生福利部國民健康署（2021）。兒童與青少年生長身體質量指數（BMI）建議值。取自https://www.hpa.gov.tw/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=542&pid=9547
鄭玉美（2007）。大專校院學生個人背景、身體質量指數、自尊及社會影響因素對身體意象之影響研究。（碩士）。大葉大學，彰化縣。
駱冠妤（2016）。臺北市某國中學生身體意象與體重控制行為相關因素之研究。（碩士）。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。
英文部分
Agliata, D., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The impact of media exposure on males' body image. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 23(1), 7-22. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.1.7.26988
Aufderheide, P. (2018). Media literacy: From a report of the national leadership conference on media literacy. In Media literacy in the information age (pp. 79-86): Routledge.
Auxier, B., & Anderson, M. (2021). Social media use in 2021. Pew Research Center, 1, 1-4.
Beecroft, A. E. (2019). Appearance-related internalization and appearance pressure in relation to body dissatisfaction in Instagram users (Doctoral dissertation).
Berne, S., Frisén, A., & Kling, J. (2014). Appearance-related cyberbullying: A qualitative investigation of characteristics, content, reasons, and effects. Body image, 11(4), 527-533.。
Big 3 Media (2020). A brief history of TikTok and its rise to popularity. https://www.big3.sg/blog/a-brief-history-of-tiktok-and-its-rise-to-popularity. Accessed: 26 February 2022
Bodega, P., Fernandez-Alvira, J. M., De Cos-Gandoy, A., Moreno, L. A., De Miguel, M., Rodriguez, C., ... & Santos-Beneit, G. (2023). Nutritional status, body image satisfaction, and self-esteem in adolescents from the SI program for secondary school trial. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 30(Supplement_1), zwad125-240.
Boepple, L., & Thompson, J. K. (2014). A content analysis of healthy living blogs: Evidence of content thematically consistent with dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47(4), 362-367.
Brown, Z., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). Attractive celebrity and peer images on Instagram: Effect on women's mood and body image. Body Image, 19, 37-43.
Burnette, C. B., Kwitowski, M. A., & Mazzeo, S. E. (2017). “I don’t need people to tell me I’m pretty on social media:” A qualitative study of social media and body image in early adolescent girls. Body Image, 23, 114-125.
Buunk, A. P., & Gibbons, F. X. (2007). Social comparison: The end of a theory and the emergence of a field. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102(1), 3-21.
Cafri, G., Thompson, J. K., Ricciardelli, L., McCabe, M., Smolak, L., & Yesalis, C. (2005). Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clinical psychology review, 25(2), 215-239.
Camirand, H. (2018). Statut pondéral, apparence corporelle et actions à l’égard du poids. Enquête québécoise sur la santé des jeunes du secondaire 2016-2017. Résultats de la deuxième édition. La santé physique et les habitudes de vie des jeunes, 41-48.
Carr C. T., Hayes R. A. (2015). Social media: Defining, developing, and divining. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 23(1), 46–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.972282.
Cash, T. F. (2000). The multidimensional body-self relations questionnaire. Unpublished test manual, 2, 1-12.
Cash, T. F., Cash, D. W., & Butters, J. W. (1983). " Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall...?" Contrast Effects and Self-Evaluations of Physical Attractiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9(3), 351-358.
Cash, T. F., Fleming, E. C., Alindogan, J., Steadman, L., & Whitehead, A. (2002). Beyond body image as a trait: The development and validation of the Body Image States Scale. Eating Disorders, 10(2), 103-113.
Chang, F.-C., Lee, C.-M., Chen, P.-H., Chiu, C.-H., Pan, Y.-C., & Huang, T.-F. (2013). Association of thin-ideal media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors among adolescents in Taiwan. Eating Behaviors, 14(3), 382-385.
Chou, H.-T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others' lives. Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 15(2), 117-121.
Cohen, R., Fardouly, J., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A. (2019). # BoPo on Instagram: An experimental investigation of the effects of viewing body positive content on young women’s mood and body image. New Media & Society, 21(7), 1546-1564.
Cohen, R., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A. (2017). The relationship between Facebook and Instagram appearance-focused activities and body image concerns in young women. Body Image, 23, 183-187.
Collaborators, G. O. (2017). Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity in 195 Countries over 25 Years. New England journal of medicine, 377(1), 13-27. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1614362
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson Education, Inc.
De Vries, D. A., Peter, J., De Graaf, H., & Nikken, P. (2016). Adolescents’ social network site use, peer appearance-related feedback, and body dissatisfaction: Testing a mediation model. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 211-224.
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of computer‐mediated communication, 12(4), 1143-1168.
Engeln-Maddox, R., & Miller, S. A. (2008). Talking back to the media ideal: The development and validation of the Critical Processing of Beauty Images Scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(2), 159-171.
Evens, O., Stutterheim, S. E., & Alleva, J. M. (2021). Protective filtering: A qualitative study on the cognitive strategies young women use to promote positive body image in the face of beauty-ideal imagery on Instagram. Body Image, 39, 40-52.
Fardouly, J., & Vartanian, L. R. (2015). Negative comparisons about one's appearance mediate the relationship between Facebook usage and body image concerns. Body Image, 12, 82-88.
Fardouly, J., & Vartanian, L. R. (2016). Social media and body image concerns: Current research and future directions. Current opinion in psychology, 9, 1-5.
Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E. (2015). Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women's body image concerns and mood. Body Image, 13, 38-45.
Fardouly, J., Willburger, B. K., & Vartanian, L. R. (2018). Instagram use and young women’s body image concerns and self-objectification: Testing mediational pathways. New media & society, 20(4), 1380-1395.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human relations, 7(2), 117-140.
Festl, R. (2021). Social media literacy & adolescent social online behavior in Germany. Journal of Children and Media, 15(2), 249-271.
Fisher, S. (2014). Development and Structure of the Body Image: Volume 2: psychology Press.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of women quarterly, 21(2), 173-206. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 1351.
Gardner, R. M. (1996). Methodological issues in assessment of the perceptual component of body image disturbance. British Journal of Psychology, 87(2), 327-337.
Ghaznavi, J., & Taylor, L. D. (2015). Bones, body parts, and sex appeal: An analysis of# thinspiration images on popular social media. Body Image, 14, 54-61.
Gibbons, F. X. (1986). Social comparison and depression: company's effect on misery. Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(1), 140.
Gonzaga, I., Ribovski, M., Claumann, G. S., Folle, A., Beltrame, T. S., Laus, M. F., & Pelegrini, A. (2023). Secular trends in body image dissatisfaction and associated factors among adolescents (2007–2017/2018). PloS one, 18(1), e0280520.
Goonapienuwala BL, Agampodi SB, Kalupahana NS, Siribaddana S. Body image perception and body dissatisfaction among rural Sri Lankan adolescents; do they have a better understanding about their weight? Ceylon Med J. 2019 Sep 30;64(3):82-90. doi: 10.4038/cmj.v64i3.8950. PMID: 32115403.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: a meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological bulletin, 134(3), 460.
Grogan, S. (2021). Body Image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women and Children (4th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003100041
Gurtala, J. C., & Fardouly, J. (2023). Does medium matter? Investigating the impact of viewing ideal image or short-form video content on young women’s body image, mood, and self-objectification. Body Image, 46, 190-201.
Haferkamp, N., & Krämer, N. C. (2011). Social comparison 2.0: Examining the effects of online profiles on social-networking sites. Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 14(5), 309-314.
Halliwell, E., Easun, A., & Harcourt, D. (2011). Body dissatisfaction: Can a short media literacy message reduce negative media exposure effects amongst adolescent girls?. British journal of health psychology, 16(2), 396-403.
Ho, S. S., Lee, E. W., & Liao, Y. (2016). Social network sites, friends, and celebrities: The roles of social comparison and celebrity involvement in adolescents’ body image dissatisfaction. Social Media+ Society, 2(3), 2056305116664216.
Ho, S. S., Lwin, M. O., & Lee, E. W. (2017). Till logout do us part? Comparison of factors predicting excessive social network sites use and addiction between Singaporean adolescents and adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 632-642.
Hobbs, R., & Frost, R. (2003). Measuring the acquisition of media‐literacy skills. Reading research quarterly, 38(3), 330-355.
Hogue, J. V., & Mills, J. S. (2019). The effects of active social media engagement with peers on body image in young women. Body Image, 28, 1-5.
Holland, G., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes. Body Image, 17, 100-110.
Holmqvist, K., & Frisén, A. (2012). “I bet they aren’t that perfect in reality:” Appearance ideals viewed from the perspective of adolescents with a positive body image. Body Image, 9(3), 388-395.
Hummel, A. C., & Smith, A. R. (2015). Ask and you shall receive: Desire and receipt of feedback via Facebook predicts disordered eating concerns. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 48(4), 436-442.
Jarman, H. K., Marques, M. D., McLean, S. A., Slater, A., & Paxton, S. J. (2021). Social media, body satisfaction and well-being among adolescents: A mediation model of appearance-ideal internalization and comparison. Body Image, 36, 139-148.
Jarman, H. K., McLean, S. A., Griffiths, S., Teague, S. J., Rodgers, R. F., Paxton, S. J., . . . Shatte, A. (2022). Critical measurement issues in the assessment of social media influence on body image. Body Image, 40, 225-236.
Jung, J., Barron, D., Lee, Y.-A., & Swami, V. (2022). Social media usage and body image: Examining the mediating roles of internalization of appearance ideals and social comparisons in young women. Computers in Human Behavior, 135, 107357.
Kandel, D. B. (1980). Drug and drinking behavior among youth. Annual review of sociology, 6(1), 235-285.
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business horizons, 53(1), 59-68.
Kemp, S. (2022, October 20). Digital 2022:October global statshot report.DataReportal. https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2022-october-global-statshot
Khan ML (2017) Social media engagement: What motivates user participation and consumption on YouTube? Computers in Human Behavior 66: 236–247.
Kietzmann, J. H., Hermkens, K., McCarthy, I. P., & Silvestre, B. S. (2011). Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media. Business horizons, 54(3), 241-251.
Kleemans, M., Daalmans, S., Carbaat, I., & Anschütz, D. (2018). Picture Perfect: The Direct Effect of Manipulated Instagram Photos on Body Image in Adolescent Girls. Media Psychology, 21(1), 93-110. doi:10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392
Latiff, A. A., Muhamad, J., & Rahman, R. A. (2018). Body image dissatisfaction and its determinants among young primary-school adolescents. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 13(1), 34-41.
Leahey, T. M., Crowther, J. H., & Mickelson, K. D. (2007). The frequency, nature, and effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons. Behavior Therapy, 38(2), 132-143.
Lee, S. Y. (2014). How do people compare themselves with others on social network sites?: The case of Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 32, 253-260.
Levine, M. P. (2016). Media literacy approaches to prevention. Encyclopedia of feeding and eating disorders. Singapore: Springer, 1-6.
Lovering, M. E., Rodgers, R. F., George, J. E., & Franko, D. L. (2018). Exploring the tripartite influence model of body dissatisfaction in postpartum women. Body Image, 24, 44-54.
Mahon, C., & Hevey, D. (2021). Processing body image on social media: Gender differences in adolescent boys’ and girls’ agency and active coping. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 626763.
Mascheroni, G., Vincent, J., & Jimenez, E. (2015). “Girls are addicted to likes so they post semi-naked selfies”: Peer mediation, normativity and the construction of identity online. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 9(1), 5.
McDougall, J., Berger, R., Fraser, P., & Zezulkova, M. (2015). Media literacy, education & (civic) capability: A transferable methodology. Journal of media literacy education, 7(1), 4-17.
McLean, S. A., Paxton, S. J., & Wertheim, E. H. (2013). Mediators of the relationship between media literacy and body dissatisfaction in early adolescent girls: Implications for prevention. Body Image, 10(3), 282-289.
McLean, S. A., Paxton, S. J., & Wertheim, E. H. (2016a). The measurement of media literacy in eating disorder risk factor research: Psychometric properties of six measures. Journal of Eating Disorders, 4(1), 1-12.
McLean, S. A., Paxton, S. J., Wertheim, E. H., & Masters, J. (2015). Photoshopping the selfie: Self photo editing and photo investment are associated with body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 48(8), 1132-1140.
McLean, S. A., Wertheim, E. H., Masters, J., & Paxton, S. J. (2017). A pilot evaluation of a social media literacy intervention to reduce risk factors for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50(7), 847-851.
McLean, S., Paxton, S., & Wertheim, E. (2016b). Does Media Literacy Mitigate Risk for Reduced Body Satisfaction Following Exposure to Thin-Ideal Media? Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 45(8), 1678-1695. doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0440-3
Mérelle, S. Y., Kleiboer, A. M., Schotanus, M., Cluitmans, T. L., Waardenburg, C. M., Kramer, D., . . . van Rooij, T. (2017). Which health-related problems are associated with problematic video-gaming or social media use in adolescents? A large-scale cross-sectional public health study. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 14(1), 11-19.
Mills, J. S., Musto, S., Williams, L., & Tiggemann, M. (2018). “Selfie” harm: Effects on mood and body image in young women. Body image, 27, 86-92.
Mingoia, J., Hutchinson, A. D., Gleaves, D. H., Corsini, N., & Wilson, C. (2017). Use of social networking sites and associations with skin tone dissatisfaction, sun exposure, and sun protection in a sample of Australian adolescents. Psychology & Health, 32(12), 1502-1517.
Mingoia, J., Hutchinson, A. D., Wilson, C., & Gleaves, D. H. (2017). The relationship between social networking site use and the internalization of a thin ideal in females: A meta-analytic review.
Moehlecke, M., Blume, C. A., Cureau, F. V., Kieling, C., & Schaan, B. D. (2020). Self-perceived body image, dissatisfaction with body weight and nutritional status of Brazilian adolescents: a nationwide study. Jornal de pediatria, 96, 76-83.
O’Brien, K. S., Caputi, P., Minto, R., Peoples, G., Hooper, C., Kell, S., & Sawley, E. (2009). Upward and downward physical appearance comparisons: Development of scales and examination of predictive qualities. Body Image, 6(3), 201-206.
Obar, J. A., & Wildman, S.(2015). Social media definition and the governance challenge: An introduction to the special issue. Telecommunications policy, 39(9), 745-750.
Odgers, C. L., & Robb, M. B. (2020). Tweens, teens, tech, and mentel health: Coming of age in an increasingly digital, uncertain, and unequal world. Common Sense Media. http://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/pdfs/tweens-teens-tech-and-mentel-health-full-report-final-for-web1.pdf
O'Neill, B., Zumwalt, A., & Bechman, J. (2011). Social media use of cooperative extension family economics educators: Online survey results and implications. Journal of Extension, 49(6), 1-6.
Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex roles, 71(11-12), 363-377.
Piko, B. F., Obál, A., & Mellor, D. (2020). Body appreciation in light of psychological, health-and weight-related variables among female adolescents. Europe's journal of psychology, 16(4), 676.
Rideout, V., & Robb, M. B. (2018). Social media, social life: Teens reveal their experiences. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media.
Rideout, V., & Robb, M. B. (2019). The common sense census: Media use by tweens & teens, 2019. Common Sense Media. http://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-tweens-and-teens-2019
Roberts, S. R., Maheux, A. J., Hunt, R. A., Ladd, B. A., & Choukas-Bradley, S. (2022). Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction. Body image, 41, 239-247.
Rodgers, R. F. (2016). The relationship between body image concerns, eating disorders and internet use, part II: An integrated theoretical model. Adolescent Research Review, 1(2), 121-137.
Roy Morgan(2018). Young women the queens of social media in Australia. https://www.roymorgan.com/findings/young-women-the-queens-of-social-media-in-australia#:~. Accessed: 14 May 2018
Royal Society for Public Health (2017). #StatusOfMind Social media and young people's mental health and wellbeing. Royal Society for Public Health. https://nationalcounsellingsociety.org/blog/posts/statusofmind-social-media-and-young-people-s-mental-health-and-wellbeing
Ryding, F. C., & Kuss, D. J. (2020). The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: A systematic review of psychological research. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(4), 412.
Sagioglou, C., & Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Facebook’s emotional consequences: Why Facebook causes a decrease in mood and why people still use it. Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 359-363.
Santarossa, S., & Woodruff, S. J. (2017). # SocialMedia: Exploring the relationship of social networking sites on body image, self-esteem, and eating disorders. Social Media+ Society, 3(2), 2056305117704407.
Schreurs, L., & Vandenbosch, L. (2021). Introducing the Social Media Literacy (SMILE) model with the case of the positivity bias on social media. Journal of Children and Media, 15(3), 320-337.
Schreurs, L., & Vandenbosch, L. (2022). Different interactions with appearance-focused social media content and adolescents’ body dissatisfaction: A within-person perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 135, 107364.
Scull, T. M., Kupersmidt, J. B., Parker, A. E., Elmore, K. C., & Benson, J. W. (2010). Adolescents’ media-related cognitions and substance use in the context of parental and peer influences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(9), 981-998.
Scully, M., Swords, L., & Nixon, E. (2023). Social comparisons on social media: Online appearance-related activity and body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 40(1), 31-42.
Shafie, L. A., Nayan, S., & Osman, N. (2012). Constructing identity through Facebook profiles: Online identity and visual impression management of university students in Malaysia. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 65, 134-140.
Shagar, P. S., Harris, N., Boddy, J., & Donovan, C. L. (2017). The relationship between body image concerns and weight-related behaviours of adolescents and emerging adults: A systematic review. Behaviour Change, 34(4), 208-252.
Silverblatt, A., Miller, D. C., Smith, J., & Brown, N. (2014). Media literacy: Keys to interpreting media messages: Keys to interpreting media messages. ABC-CLIO.
Statista. (2023). Distribution of Instagram users worldwide as of January 2023, by age and gender. https://www.statista.com/statistics/248769/age-distribution-of-worldwide-instagram-users/
Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9(2), 69-74.
Tamplin, N. C., McLean, S. A., & Paxton, S. J. (2018). Social media literacy protects against the negative impact of exposure to appearance ideal social media images in young adult women but not men. Body Image, 26, 29-37.
Tandoc Jr, E. C., Yee, A. Z., Ong, J., Lee, J. C. B., Xu, D., Han, Z., ... & Cayabyab, M. Y. (2021). Developing a perceived social media literacy scale: evidence from Singapore. International Journal of Communication, 15, 22.
Thompson, J. K. (2001). Assessing body image disturbance: Measures, methodology, and implementation. In Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment. (pp. 49-81): American Psychological Association.
Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current directions in psychological science, 10(5), 181-183.
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance: American Psychological Association.
Thompson, J. K., Van Den Berg, P., Roehrig, M., Guarda, A. S., & Heinberg, L. J. (2004). The sociocultural attitudes towards appearance scale‐3 (SATAQ‐3): Development and validation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35(3), 293-304.
Thompson, J., & Cafri, G. E. (2007). The muscular ideal: Psychological, social, and medical perspectives: American Psychological Association.
Tiggemann, M., & Anderberg, I. (2020). Social media is not real: The effect of ‘Instagram vs reality’images on women’s social comparison and body image. New Media & Society, 22(12), 2183-2199.
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2013). NetGirls: The Internet, Facebook, and body image concern in adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 46(6), 630-633.
Tiggemann, M., Slater, A., & Smyth, V. (2014). ‘Retouch free’: The effect of labelling media images as not digitally altered on women's body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 11(1), 85-88.
Tomé, J., & Cardita, S. (2021, December 21). In 2021, the Internet went for TikTok, space and beyond. Cloud Flare. Retrieved February 5, 2022, from https://blog.cloudflare.com/popular-domains-year-in-review-2021/
Uchôa, F. N. M., Uchôa, N. M., Daniele, T. M. d. C., Lustosa, R. P., Garrido, N. D., Deana, N. F., . . . Alves, N. (2019). Influence of the mass media and body dissatisfaction on the risk in adolescents of developing eating disorders. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(9), 1508.
Uncapher, M. R., Lin, L., Rosen, L. D., Kirkorian, H. L., Baron, N. S., Bailey, K., ... & Wagner, A. D. (2017). Media multitasking and cognitive, psychological, neural, and learning differences. Pediatrics, 140(Supplement_2), S62-S66.
Vandenbosch, L., Fardouly, J., & Tiggemann, M. (2022). Social media and body image: Recent trends and future directions. Current opinion in psychology, 45, 101289.
Vaterlaus, J. M., & Winter, M. (2021). TikTok: an exploratory study of young adults’ uses and gratifications. The Social Science Journal, 1-20.
Wei, L., Gong, J., Xu, J., Abidin, N. E. Z., & Apuke, O. D. (2023). Do social media literacy skills help in combating fake news spread? Modelling the moderating role of social media literacy skills in the relationship between rational choice factors and fake news sharing behaviour. Telematics and Informatics, 76, 101910.
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological bulletin, 90(2), 245.
Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological bulletin, 106(2), 231.
Wood, J. V. (1996). What is social comparison and how should we study it?. Personality and social psychology bulletin, 22(5), 520-537.
World Health Organization. (2000). Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic: report of a WHO consultation.
Wu, Y., Harford, J., Petersen, J., & Prichard, I. (2022). “Eat clean, train mean, get lean”: Body image and health behaviours of women who engage with fitspiration and clean eating imagery on Instagram. Body Image, 42, 25-31.
Zheng, D., Ni, X. L., & Luo, Y. J. (2019). Selfie posting on social networking sites and female adolescents’ self-objectification: The moderating role of imaginary audience ideation. Sex Roles, 80, 325-331.