本研究旨在探討以中文為第二語言之語言學習者對中文表人標記之習得，並比較不同語言背景的華語二語學習者在習得表現上的差異。主要研究議題有四：習得順序、顯著效應、錯誤分析及母語遷移。共有五十四位受試者參與實驗，並依其語言背景分為三組，每組各十八位：漢字圈背景的華語二語學習者、非漢字圈背景的華語二語學習者以及中文母語者。實驗設計包含兩項任務：無顯著語境線索任務與有顯著語境線索任務。在這兩項任務中，受試者需根據所看到的圖片與聽到的內容，從兩個選項中選出正確答案。然而，在有顯著語境線索任務中，受試者會聽到與目標表人標記直接相關之顯著語境線索，作為輔助提示。
研究發現，中文表人標記中「人」與「員」最易習得，而「手」、「師」及「家」則相對較難。語意特徵的數量僅能解釋部分習得順序，而表人標記的詞頻與多義性則進一步影響其習得難度。在顯著效應方面，華語二語學習者在有顯著語境線索的任務中表現優於無顯著語境線索的任務，證實顯著語境線索有助於學習者理解中文表人標記之意義。錯誤分析顯示，漢字圈與非漢字圈的華語二語學習者在某些錯誤上具有共通性，例如：將「人」誤用為「手」、將「員」誤用為「人」，以及將「師」與「家」混用。此外，漢字圈學習者較常將「手」誤用為「員」，而非漢字圈學習者則傾向將「手」誤用為「師」。最後，結果顯示漢字圈背景的華語二語學習者表現優於非漢字圈學習者，證明與中文相近之第一語言背景有助於提升中文二語學習者的習得表現。

This study investigated the acquisition of Chinese agentive markers by Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners, with a focus on comparing learners across different language backgrounds. Four key issues were examined: acquisition order, salience effects, error analysis, and L1 transfer. Fifty-four participants were divided into three groups of eighteen: Sinosphere CSL learners, non-Sinosphere CSL learners, and native Chinese speakers. The experiment involved two tasks: a Non-Salient Context Task (NC Task) and a Salient Context Task (SC Task). In both tasks, participants selected the correct option based on pictures and the sentences they heard, with the SC Task providing salient contextual cues directly related to the target agentive markers.
The results indicated ren ‘person’ and yuan ‘member’ were the easiest markers to acquire, while shou ‘adept,’ shi ‘specialist,’ and jia ‘master’ posed greater challenges. The number of semantic features partially explained the acquisition order, but word frequency and polysemy also played a significant role in influencing difficulty. CSL learners demonstrated better performance in the SC Task, confirming that salient contextual cues did facilitate a better understanding of Chinese agentive markers. Error analysis revealed common mistakes across both Sinosphere and non-Sinosphere learners, such as confusing ren with shou, yuan with ren, and using shi and jia interchangeably. In addition, language-specific errors were observed: Sinosphere learners frequently misused shou for yuan, while non-Sinosphere learners tended to confuse shou with shi. Overall, Sinosphere learners outperformed non-Sinosphere learners, suggesting that first language backgrounds closer to Chinese enhance the acquisition of Chinese agentive markers.

Al-Khresheh, Mohammad. H. (2016). A review study of error analysis theory. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research, 2, 49-59. https://doi.org/10.6000/2371-1655.2016.02.05
Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and Teaching: Research Reviews (pp. 77-117). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Sprouse, R. A. (2017). Negative versus positive transfer. In J. I. Liontas (Ed.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching (pp. 1-6). Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0084
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & McCaslin, E. S. (1983). Vocabulary development: All contexts are not created equal. The Elementary School Journal, 83(3), 177-181. https://doi.org/10.1086/461307
Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Cortes, V. (2004). If you look at …: Lexical bundles in university teaching and textbooks, Applied Linguistics, 25(3), 371-405. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/25.3.371
Boswijk, V., & Coler, M. (2020). What is salience? Open Linguistics, 6(1), 713-722. https://doi.org/10.1515/opli-2020-0042
Chai, X., & Bao, J. (2023). Linguistic distances between native languages and Chinese influence acquisition of Chinese character, vocabulary, and grammar. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1083574
Chao, Y.-R. (1968). A grammar of spoken Chinese. University of California Press.
Chen, K.-Y. (2020). A comparative study of radical awareness by the learners of Chinese as second language from Chinese- and Non-Chinese-Character spheres [Unpublished master’s thesis]. National Taiwan Normal University. https://doi.org/10.6345/NTNU202001068
Chen, T. (2018a). Joint contributions of multilevel linguistic knowledge to character meaning retention in L2 Chinese. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 48, 129-143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-018-9594-3
Chen, T. (2018b). The contribution of morphological awareness to lexical inferencing in L2 Chinese: Comparing more-skilled and less-skilled learners. Foreign Language Annals, 51(4), 816–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12365
Cintrón-Valentín, M. C., & Ellis, N. C. (2016). Salience in second language acquisition: Physical form, learner attention, and instructional focus. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01284
Clark, E. V. (1973). What’s in a word? On the child’s acquisition of semantics in his first language. In T. E. Moore, Cognitive development and the acquisition of language. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-505850-6.50009-8
Clark, E. V., & Cohen, S. R. (1984). Productivity and memory for newly formed words. Journal of Child Language, 11(3), 611-625. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0305000900005985
Clark, E. V., & Hecht, B. F. (1982). Learning to coin agent and instrument nouns. Cognition, 12(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(82)90027-0
Cook, T. D., & Reichardt, C. S. (Eds.). (1979). Qualitative and quantitative methods in evaluation research. Sage.
Corder, S. P. (1975). Error analysis, interlanguage and second language acquisition. Language Teaching, 8(4), 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444800002822
Crossley, S., Salsbury, T., & McNamara, D. (2010). The development of polysemy and frequency use in English second language speakers. Language Learning, 60(3), 573-605. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00568.x
Eckman, F. R. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 27(2), 315-330. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1977.tb00124.x
Ellis, N. C. (2006). Selective attention and transfer phenomena in L2 acquisition: Contingency, cue competition, salience, interference, overshadowing, blocking, and perceptual learning. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 164-194. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/aml015
Feldman, L. B., Frost, R., & Pnini, T. (1995). Decomposing words into their constituent morphemes: Evidence from English and Hebrew. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 947-960. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.947
Gass, S. M. (1988). Second language acquisition and linguistic theory: The role of language transfer. In S. Flynn & W. O’Neil (Eds.), Linguistic theory in second language acquisition (pp. 384-403). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2733-9_21
González-Fernández, B., & Webb, S. (2024). How well are primary and secondary meanings of L2 words acquired? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263124000317
Hamada, M. (2014). The role of morphological and contextual information in L2 lexical inference. The Modern Language Journal, 98(4), 992-1005. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12151
Hamawand, Z. (2008). Agent-forming nominalisers. In Z. Hamawand, Morpho-Lexical Alternation in Noun Formation (pp. 108–135). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230584013_5
Higgs, T. V. (1985). The input hypothesis: An inside look. Foreign Language Annals, 18(3), 197-203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1985.tb01791.x
Hsu, Y.-T. (2008). Hanyu shuren mingchising houzhui de shiyong chayi—yi jia, shi, shou, zhe, ren, weili shuoming— [Differences in the Usage of Chinese Agentive Nominal Suffixes—Illustrated Using “jia, shi, shou, yuan, zhe, ren” as Examples—] [Unpublished master’s thesis]. National Kaohsiung Normal University. https://hdl.handle.net/11296/k53k6x
Huyghe, R., & Wauquier, M. (2020). What’s in an agent? Morphology, 30(3), 185-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-020-09366-2
Huyghe, R., & Wauquier, M. (2021). Distributional semantics insights on agentive suffix rivalry in French. Word Structure, 14(3), 354-391. https://doi.org/10.3366/word.2021.0194
Hwang, S. H. (2013). The acquisition of Korean plural marking by native English speakers [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Georgetown University. http://hdl.handle.net/10822/558385
Hwang, S. H., & Lardiere, D. (2013). Plural-marking in L2 Korean: A feature-based approach. Second Language Research, 29(1), 57-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658312461496
Ke, S. E., & Koda, K. (2017). Contributions of morphological awareness to adult L2 Chinese word meaning inferencing. The Modern Language Journal, 101(4), 742-755. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12428
Khansir, A. A. (2012). Error analysis and second language acquisition. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(5), 1027-1032. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.5.1027-1032 
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Longman.
Krashen, S. D. (1992). The input hypothesis: An update. In J. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics 1991 (pp. 409-431). Georgetown University Press.
Ku, Y.-M., & Anderson, R. C. (2003). Development of morphological awareness in Chinese and English. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 16(5), 399–422. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024227231216
Kuo, L., & Anderson, R. C. (2006). Morphological awareness and learning to read: A cross-language perspective. Educational Psychologist, 41(3), 161-180. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4103_3
Lardiere, D. (2009). Some thoughts on the contrastive analysis of features in second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 25(2), 173-227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658308100283
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. Longman.
Lee, E. (2015). L2 acquisition of number marking: A bidirectional study of adult learners of Korean and Indonesian [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Georgetown University. http://hdl.handle.net/10822/760906
Lin, P.-C. (2010). Hanyu biaoren de houzhuici zhi gainian fensi [A conceptual analysis of Chinese nominal suffixes for human referents] [Unpublished master’s thesis]. National Chung Cheng University. https://hdl.handle.net/11296/w9ry4m
Lin, Y.-H. (2006). Shuren mingci zhunhouzhui ‘-jia, -shi, -zhe, -yuan, -ren’ de ri han duiyi fenxi [A Contrastive Analysis of Human Nominal “Quasi-Suffixes” ‘-jia, -shi, -zhe, -yuan, -ren’ in Chinese and Japanese] [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Fu Jen Catholic University. https://hdl.handle.net/11296/24j27d
Liu, Y. (2013). L1 reading ability, L2 linguistic knowledge, and L2 semantic gap filling ability [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Carnegie Mellon University.
McBride-Chang, C., Wagner, R. K., Muse, A., Chow, B. W.-Y., & Shu, H. (2005). The role of morphological awareness in children’s vocabulary acquisition in English. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26(3), 415-435. https://doi.org/10.1017/S014271640505023X
Meisel, J. M. (1983). Transfer as a second-language strategy. Language & Communication, 3(1), 11-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/0271-5309(83)90018-6
Mori, Y., & Nagy, W. (1999). Integration of information from context and word elements in interpreting novel kanji compounds. Reading Research Quarterly, 34(1), 80-101. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.34.1.5
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 10, 209-231. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209
Skehan, P. (2008). Interlanguage and language transfer. In B. Spolsky & F. M. Hult (Eds.), The handbook of educational linguistics (pp. 411-423). Wiley Blackwell.
Snow, C. E., Smith, N. S. H., & Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1980). The acquisition of some Dutch morphological rules. Journal of Child Language, 7(3), 539-553. https://doi.org/10.1017/S030500090000283X
Su, J. (2019). Reassembly of plural and human features in the L2 acquisition of Chinese by adult Korean speakers. Second Language Research, 35(4), 529-555. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658318789223
Tong, X., Kwan, J. L. Y., Wong, D. W. M., Lee, S. M. K., & Yip, J. H. Y. (2016). Toward a dynamic interactive model of non-native Chinese character processing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(5), 680-693. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000083
Touchie, H. Y. (1986). Second Language learning errors: Their types, causes, and treatment. JALT Journal, 8 (1), 75-80.
Webb, S. (2008). The effects of context on incidental vocabulary learning. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20(2), 232-245.
Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV): Administration and scoring manual (4th ed.). Pearson.
Xu, Y., & Zhang, J. (2022). Chinese compound word inference through context and word-internal cues. Language Teaching Research, 26(3), 308-332. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820905811
Yang, H.-M, Chen, H. H.-J, & Pang, I.-T. (2015). Analyzing the features of the high-frequency words on Chinese spoken corpus and offering the word-recruiting suggestion to TOCFL Wordlist. Journal of Chinese Language Teaching, 12(1), 1-44. https://www.airitilibrary.com/Article/Detail?DocID=18118429-201503-201504160022-201504160022-1-44
Zhan, C. (2015). Money v.s. prestige: Cultural attitudes and occupational choices. Labour Economics, 32, 44-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2014.12.003
Zhang, D. (2013). Linguistic distance effect on cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(5), 917-942. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716412000070
Zhang, H., & Koda, K. (2018). Vocabulary knowledge and morphological awareness in Chinese as a heritage language (CHL) reading comprehension ability. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 31(1), 53-74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9773-x
Zhang, J., & Lu, X. (2013). Variability in Chinese as a foreign language learners’ development of the Chinese numeral classifier system. The Modern Language Journal, 97(1), 46-60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2012.01423.x
Zhang, D., & Xing, X. (2023). The interaction of orthography, phonology, and semantics in the process of second language learners’ Chinese character production. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1076810