聽讀法（Reading-while-listening）已被指出對初學者的語言學習和閱讀有益，也在第二語言（second language）的研究中越來越受到關注。針對該新興議題，本研究以測驗和眼動儀探討聽讀法對第二語言學習的閱讀理解與認知歷程有何影響，且是否會因讀者有不同英文能力而有不同影響效果。此外，由於解碼（decoding）效率長期以來一直被視為影響閱讀理解的重要因素，其中詞頻效應（the word frequency effect）為字詞辨認受到最多關注的焦點之一，因此，本研究也納入詞頻為變項，探討二語習得的閱讀歷程。最後，該實驗也會探討讀者的情意因子，了解不同語言程度的學習者對於聽讀法的態度與感受。
本研究招募87位大學生英語學習者，根據其自陳的英語證照考試結果，分為高能力組（CEFR C1級）與低能力組（CEFR B2級），兩組分別有43名和44名參與者。本實驗一共設計三種閱讀情境—聽讀（reading-while-listening）、有時間限制的閱讀（reading-only with time limitation）、沒有時間限制的閱讀（reading-only without time limitation），受試者被隨機分配到這三種情境中的兩種進行閱讀，讀兩篇不同的英文文章。讀文章前，每位受試者都需完成一份詞彙程度的預測測試（vocabulary levels test），而閱讀文章時，讀者的眼動歷程會被記錄，之後完成英文閱讀理解後測。最後，參與聽讀組別的受試者需要填寫一份閱讀經驗的偏好問卷，以了解他們對聽讀的態度。
研究結果有四項主要的發現。首先，閱讀情境和英語程度有交互作用，高英文能力的讀者自己讀的閱讀理解表現顯著優於聽讀的情境，可用冗餘效應（redundancy effect）來解釋此結果，外來的語音對於高語言能力讀者處理文本可能反而是干擾；相反地，低英文能力讀者則是在聽讀情境的閱讀理解表現最好，此結果可以雙路徑理論（dual-route theory）和字型—語音整合理論（print-speech integration）來解釋，提供語音可能可以幫助語言能力低的讀者快速連結形音對應，進而促進閱讀理解表現。第二，眼動資料的分析結果顯示無論英文能力高或低的讀者，在沒有時間限制的閱讀情境下，他們讀英文文章的總閱讀時間（total reading time）和總凝視次數（total fixation count）都比在另外兩種情境來的長和多。而英語程度則影響單一平均凝視時間（mean fixation duration）和平均跳移距離（mean saccade length），高能力組在任何閱讀情境下都有較低的單一平均凝視時間和較高的平均跳移距離，代表高能力者解碼英文的速度較快且處理英文文本的知覺廣度較大。第三，本研究發現詞頻效應在二語閱讀也很明顯，低頻詞的被凝視次數、重讀時間（rereading time）和總凝視時間（total fixation duration）都顯著高於高頻詞。第四，雖然低英文能力者在聽讀情境的閱讀理解表現較佳，但問卷資料顯示無論英文能力高或低的讀者皆自陳其偏好單純閱讀的情境。綜上，本研究結果的發現除了支持二語閱讀的理論架構，也提供語言學習與教學的實務建議，針對不同英文能力者是否要提供語音應有不同的做法。

Reading-while-listening has gained growing attention in second language (L2) reading, and it has been demonstrated to have beneficial effects on language learning. However, research to date has yet reached the consensus over its influence on reading comprehension, and little is known about L2 eye-movement behavior during reading-while-listening. In response to this emerging research focus, this study aimed at exploring how the additional audio would impact the cognitive processes and comprehension results of L2 readers with different English proficiency levels. Besides, since decoding efficiency has long held as an essential factor of reading comprehension, the word frequency effect, one of the most well-established areas regarding word recognition, would also be investigated through the eye-tracking technology. Lastly, readers’ perception towards different reading experiences would be examined to understand L2 reading-while-listening in a comprehensive manner.
A total of 87 adult English learners were recruited. Based on their self-report English certification results, they were assigned to either the high-proficiency group (CEFR C1 level) or the low-proficiency group (CEFR B2 level), with 43 and 44 participants respectively. These learners were then be randomly assigned to two of the three reading conditions – reading-while-listening, reading-only with time limitation, and reading-only without time limitation. During the experiment, each participant had to finish a vocabulary levels pre-test, read two English articles with their eyes monitored, and complete a comprehension posttest right after reading each text. In the end, those participating in reading-while-listening were required to fill out a questionnaire about their preference towards the reading experiences.
The results showed four major findings regarding the reading-while-listening condition. Firstly, both the reading condition and the English proficiency level had effects on the comprehension posttests. That is, the high-proficiency participants performed significantly worse on the comprehension posttests after reading-while-listening, while the low-proficiency counterparts gained higher scores, compared with those after the two reading-only conditions. Hence, the redundancy effect can be supported through the results of the high-proficiency group, whereas the dual route theory and print-speech integration can be supported by those of the low-proficiency group. In addition, the reading condition had effects on the total reading time and total fixation count, meaning that all participants had higher total reading time and total fixation count during reading-only without time limitation than the other two conditions. By contrast, the English proficiency level influenced the mean fixation duration, and mean saccade length, implying that the high-proficiency group had lower mean fixation duration and longer mean saccade length than the low-proficiency group across the three reading conditions. Moreover, the word frequency effect was larger in L2 reading, with the fixation count, rereading time, and total fixation duration of low-frequency words significantly higher than those of high-frequency words. Lastly, even though the low-proficiency group was benefited from the auditory inputs, all participants regarded reading-only to be the preferable reading condition. Through these findings, not only the theoretical framework of L2 eye movements can be strengthen, but language learners and educational practitioners could have clearer idea about the implementation of reading-while-listening to facilitate the reading process and comprehension results.

Adesope, O. O., & Nesbit, J. C. (2012). Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning environments: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(1), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026147

Amer, A. A. (1997). The effect of the teacher's reading aloud on the reading comprehension of EFL students. ELT Journal, 51(1), 43¬47. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/51.1.43

Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255(5044), 556¬559. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1736359

Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. A. Bower (Ed.), Recent advances in learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47¬89). Academic Press. https:// doi.org/10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60452-1

Barnard, D. (2022, Nov. 08). Average speaking rate and words per minute. VIRTUALSPEECH. https://virtualspeech.com/blog/average-speaking-rate-words-per-minute

Beers, K. (1998). Listen while you read: struggling readers and audiobooks. School Library Journal, 44(4), 30¬35.

Berns, M. (2009). English as lingua franca and English in Europe. World Englishes, 28(2), 192¬199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2009.01578.x

Borrás, I., & Lafayette, R. C. (1994). Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling on the speaking performance of college students of French. Modern Language Journal, 78(1), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.2307/329253

Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301(5899), 419–421. https://doi.org/10.1038/301419a0

Brown, R., Waring, R., & Donkaewbua, S. (2008). Incidental vocabulary acquisition from reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. Reading in a Foreign Language, (20), 136–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2016.1203328

Brunswick, N., McCrory, E., Price, C. J., Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (1999). Explicit and implicit processing of words and pseudowords by adult developmental dyslexics: A search for Wernicke's Wortschatz? Brain, 122(10), 1901¬1917. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/122.10.1901

Cobb, T. (2015). The compleat lexical tutor: Version 4. Available at: https://www.lextutor.ca (Accessed May 2023).

Cop, U., Drieghe, D., & Duyck, W. (2015). Eye movement patterns in natural reading: a comparison of monolingual and bilingual reading of a novel. PLoS ONE, 10(8), Article e0134008. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134008

Chang, A. C.-S. (2009). Gains to L2 listeners from reading while listening vs. listening only in comprehending short stories. System, 37(4), 652¬663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.09.009

Chang, C.-S. (2011). The effect of reading while listening to audiobooks: listening fluency and vocabulary gain. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 19, 43¬64. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-3-9-5

Chang, A. C.-S., & Millett, S. (2014). The effect of extensive listening on developing L2 listening fluency: Some hard evidence. ELT Journal, 68(1), 31¬40. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/cct052

Chang, A. C.-S., & Millett, S. (2015). Improving reading rates and comprehension through audio-assisted extensive reading for beginner learners. System, 52, 91¬102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2015.05.003

Clifton, C., & Staub, A. (2011). Syntactic influences on eye movements during reading. In S. P. Liversedge, I. D. Gilchrist, & S. Everling (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of eye movements (pp. 895–909). Oxford University Press.

Coltheart, M. (2005). Modeling reading: The dual-route approach. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 6–23). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757642.ch1

Conklin, K., Alotaibi, S., Pellicer-Sánchez, A., & Vilkaitė-Lozdienė, L. (2020). What eye-tracking tells us about reading-only and reading-while-listening in a first and second language. Second Language Research, 36(3), 257¬276. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658320921496

Conklin, K., & Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2016). Using eye-tracking in applied linguistics and second language research. Second Language Research, 32(3), 453¬467. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658316637401

Daneman, M., & Newson, M. (1992). Assessing the importance of subvocalization during normal silent reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4(1), 55¬77. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01027072

Dewey, M. (2007). English as a lingua franca and globalization: An interconnected
perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17(3), 332¬354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1473-4192.2007.00177.x
Diao, Y., & Sweller, J. (2007). Redundancy in foreign language reading comprehension instruction: Concurrent written and spoken presentations. Learning and Instruction, 17(1), 78¬88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.11.007

Dussias, P. E. (2010). Uses of eye-tracking data in second language sentence processing research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 149¬166. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026719051000005X

Emir Öksüz, E., Kalkan, B., Can, N., & Haktanir, A. (2021). Adult mental health and loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic in late 2020. European Journal of Psychology Open, 80(1-2), 18¬30. https://doi.org/10.1024/2673-8627/a000001

Garza, T. J. (1991). Evaluating the use of captioned video materials in advanced foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 24(3), 239¬258. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1991.tb00469.x

Godfroid, A. (2019). Eye tracking in second language acquisition and bilingualism: A research synthesis and methodological guide. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315775616

Gollan, T. H., Montoya, R. I., Cera, C., & Sandoval, T. C. (2008). More use almost always means a smaller frequency effect: Aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(3), 787¬814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.07.001

Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: moving from theory to practice. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139150484

Grainger, J., & Ziegler, J. C. (2011). A dual-route approach to orthographic processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 54. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00054

Hill, J., & Hannafin, M. (2001). Teaching and learning in digital environments: The resurgence of resource-based learning. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 49, 37¬52. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504914

Hu, H., -C. M., & Nation, P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 13(1), 403¬430.

Inhoff, A. W., & Rayner, K. (1986). Parafoveal word processing during eye fixations in reading: Effects of word frequency. Perception & Psychophysics, 40(6), 431¬439. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208203

Jeon, E. H., & Yamashita, J. (2014). L2 reading comprehension and its correlates: A meta‐analysis. Language Learning, 64(1), 160¬212. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12034

Jian, Y. C., Chen, M. L., & Ko, H. W. (2013). Context effects in processing of Chinese academic words: An eye-tracking investigation. Reading Research Quarterly, 48(4), 403¬413. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.56

Jobard, G., Crivello, F., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2003). Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage, 20(2), 693¬712. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00343-4

Joseph, H. S., Nation, K., & Liversedge, S. P. (2013). Using eye movements to investigate word frequency effects in children's sentence reading. School Psychology Review, 42(2), 207¬222. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2013.12087485

Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2000). Incorporating learner experience into the design of multimedia instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.1.126

Keating, G. D., & Jegerski, J. (2015). Experimental designs in sentence processing research: A methodological review and user’s guide. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(1), 1¬32. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263114000187

Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge University Press.

Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 85(5), 363¬394. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.85.5.363

Koskinen, P. S., Blum, I. H., Bisson, S. A., Phillips, S. M., Creamer, T. S., & Baker, T. K. (2000). Book access, shared reading, and audio models: The effects of supporting the literacy learning of linguistically diverse students in school and at home. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.1.23

Krashen, S. (1982). Principle and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon Press.

Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Longman.

Kuo, P.-H., & Jian, Y.-C. (2022). Processing strategies for reading illustrated scientific texts and Chinese academic words with different degrees of semantic transparency among middle-school students: An eye-tracking study. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 53 (4), 949¬977. http://doi.org/10.6251/BEP.202206_53(4).0008

Lai, M. L., Tsai, M. J., Yang, F. Y., Hsu, C. Y., Liu, T. C., Lee, S. W. Y., Lee, M. H., Chiou, G. L., Liang, J. C., & Tsai, C-C. (2013). A review of using eye-tracking technology in exploring learning from 2000 to 2012. Educational Research Review, 10, 90¬115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.10.001

Lai, W., & Wei, L. (2019). A critical evaluation of Krashen’s monitor model. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 9(11), 1459¬1464. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0911.13

Landi, N. (2010). An examination of the relationship between reading comprehension, higher-level and lower-level reading sub-skills in adults. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23(6), 701–717. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9180-z

Laufer, B. (1989). What percentage of text-lexis is essential for comprehension? In C. Lauren, and M. Nordman (Eds.), Special language: From human thinking to thinking machines, multilingual matters (pp. 316¬323). Clevedon.

Lightbown, P. M. (1992). Can they do it themselves? A comprehension-based ESL course for young children. In R. Courchene, J. St John, C. Therrien, and J. Glidden (Eds.), Comprehension-based second language teaching: Current trends (p. 353–370). University of Ottawa Press.

Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How Languages Are Learned (5th Edition). Oxford University Press.

Liversedge, S. P., Drieghe, D., Li, X., Yan, G., Bai, X., & Hyönä, J. (2016). Universality in eye movements and reading: A trilingual investigation. Cognition, 147, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2015.10.013

Lund, R. J. (1991). A comparison of second language listening and reading comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 75(2), 196–204. https://doi.org/10.2307/328827

Mayer, R. E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.187

Mohamed, A. A. (2018). Looking at words: An eye-tracking investigation of L2 Arabic vocabulary learning. In T. A. Mohammad (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of Arabic second language acquisition (pp. 139–156). Routledge.

Nation, I. S. P. (1983). Testing and teaching vocabulary. Guidelines, 5(1), 12–25.Nation, I. (2012). The BNC/COCA word family lists. Available at: https://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/about/staff/paul-nation (Accessed April 24).

Osada, N. (2001). What strategy do less proficient learners employ in listening comprehension? A reappraisal of bottom-up and top-down processing. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 5, 73–90.

Pellicer‐Sánchez, A., Conklin, K., & Vilkaitė‐Lozdienė, L. (2021). The effect of prereading instruction on vocabulary learning: An investigation of L1 and L2 eaders’ eye movements. Language Learning, 71(1), 162–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12430

Pellicer-Sánchez, A., Tragant, E., Conklin, K., Rodgers, M., Serrano, R., & Llanes, A. (2020). Young learners; processing of multimodal input and its impact on reading comprehension: An eye-tracking study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(3), 577–598. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000091

Serrano, R., & Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2019). Reading vs. Reading while listening in young learners: An eye-tracking investigation. Applied Linguistics Review, 51(1), 134–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688220906904

Shany, M. T., & Biemiller, A. (1995). Assisted reading practice: Effects on performance for poor readers in Grades 3 and 4. Reading Research Quarterly, 30(3), 382–395. https://doi.org/10.2307/747622

Sheriston, L., Critten, S., & Jones, E. (2016). Routes to reading and spelling: Testing the predictions of dual-route theory. Reading Research Quarterly, 51(4), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.143

Siyanova-Chanturia, A., Conklin, K., & Schmitt, N. (2011). Adding more fuel to the fire: An eye-tracking study of idiom processing by native and non-native speakers. Second Language Research, 27(2), 251–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658310382068

Tindall-Ford, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). When two sensory modes are better than one. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 3(4), 257–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.3.4.257

Tragant Mestres, E., Llanes Baró, À., & Pinyana Garriga, À. (2019). Linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes of a reading-while-listening program for young learners of English. Reading and Writing, 32, 819–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9886-x

Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1

Pass, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive load theory: instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32(1-2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0

Preston, J. L., Molfese, P. J., Frost, S. J., Mencl, W. E., Fulbright, R. K., Hoeft, F., Landi, N., Shankweiler, D., & Pugh, K. R. (2016). Print-speech convergence predicts future reading outcomes in early readers. Psychological Science, 27(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615611921

Rasinski, T. (1990). Effects of repeated reading and listening-while-reading on reading fluency. Journal of Educational Research, 83, 147–150.

Rasinski, T. V., & Hoffman, J. V. (2003). Oral reading in the school literacy curriculum. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(4), 510–522. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.38.4.5

Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372

Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and Visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1457–1506. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210902816461

Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., Ashby, J., & Clifton, C., Jr. (2012). Psychology of reading (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.

Rayner, K., Warren, T., Juhasz, B. J., & Liversedge, S. P. (2004). The effect of plausibility on eye movements in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(6), 1290–1301. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.6.1290

Renandya, W. A., & Jacobs, G. M. (2016). Extensive reading and listening in the L2 classroom. In W. A. Renandya, & Handoyo, P. (Eds.), English language teaching today (pp. 97-110). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1177/003368829903000103

Roberts, L., & Siyanova-Chanturia, A. (2013). Using eye-tracking to investigate topics in L2 acquisition and L2 processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(2), 213–235. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263112000861

Rubin, D. L., Hafer, T., & Arata, K. (2000). Reading and listening to oral‐based versus literate‐based discourse. Communication Education, 49(2), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520009379200

Rueckl, J. G., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2009). Computational modeling and the neural bases of reading and reading disorders. In K. Pugh & P. McCardle (Eds.), How children learn to read: Current issues and new directions in the integration of cognition, neurobiology and genetics of reading and dyslexia research and practice (pp. 101–133). Psychology Press.

Schnotz, W., & Kürschner, C. (2007). A reconsideration of cognitive load theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(4), 469–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-007-9053-4

Stanovich, K. E. (1992). Speculations on the causes and consequences of individual differences in early reading acquisition. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (p. 307–342). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Sticht T. G., James J. H. (1984). Listening and reading. In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 293–317). Longman.

Sweller, J., & Sweller, S. (2006). Natural Information Processing Systems. Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 434–458. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470490600400135

Taguchi, E., Takayasu-Maass, M., & Gorsuch, G. J. (2004). Developing reading fluency in EFL: How assisted repeated reading and extensive reading affect fluency development. Reading in a Foreign Language, 16(2), 70–92.

Terrell, T. D. (1977). A natural approach to second language acquisition and learning. The Modern Language Journal, 61(7), 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1977.tb05147.x

Tragant, E., & Vallbona, A. (2018). Reading while listening to learn: Young EFL learners’ perceptions. ELT Journal, 72(4), 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccy009

Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2010). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.14507/er.v0.1296

van Bon, W. H., Boksebeld, L. M., Font Freide, T. A., & van den Hurk, A. J. (1991). A comparison of three methods of reading-while-listening. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(8), 471–476. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949102400805

Wade, N. J. (2007). Scanning the seen: Vision and the origins of eye-movement research. In R. P. G. van Gompel, M. H. Fischer, W. S. Murray, & R. L. Hill (Eds.), Eye movements: A window on mind and brain (pp. 31–63). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044980-7/50004-5

Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192

Wang, T.-N., & Jian, Y.-C. (2022). A systematic review of eye-tracking studies on text-diagram science reading. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 53 (4), 733–799. http://doi.org/10.6251/BEP.202206_53(4).0001

Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. (2012). Vocabulary learning through assisted and unassisted repeated reading. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 68, 267–290. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.1204.1

Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. (2015). Second language vocabulary learning through extensive reading with audio support: How do frequency and distribution of occurrence affect learning? Language Teaching Research, 19(6), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168814559800

Webb, S., Sasao, Y., & Ballance, O. (2017). The updated vocabulary levels test: Developing and validating two new forms of the VLT. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 168(1), 33–69. https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.168.1.02web

Whitford, V., & Titone, D. (2012). Second-language experience modulates first- and second-language word frequency effects: Evidence from eye movement measures of natural paragraph reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(1), 73–80. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-011-0179-5

Woodall, B. (2010). Simultaneous listening and reading in ESL: Helping second language learners read (and enjoy reading) more efficiently. TESOL Journal, 1(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.5054/tj.2010.220151