目的：本研究目的在探討額中葉theta波 (Fmθ) 神經回饋訓練是否對高爾夫推桿表現以及心理狀態有正面的影響。根據Patrick 與 Hrycaiko (1998)，單一受試者研究設計 (single - subject) 是應用性研究中一種較合適的研究方式，因此本研究將透過跨實驗參與者多基準線設計 (across - subjects multiple baselines) 來探討神經回饋訓練的效果。方法：三位優秀的男性高爾夫球選手皆須完成11次的10球推桿作為表現的依據。競賽心理狀態性焦慮量表、實驗信度與效度測量也會在神經回饋訓練前後分別施測。結果：三位參與者的推桿表現在神經回饋訓練後皆有改善，而且在主觀感受上都體驗到較高的專注以及控制感。在皮質活動上，所有參與者在推桿時的Fmθ以及其餘與較佳注意力狀態有關的腦波特徵都沒有明顯的改變，結論：神經回饋訓練確實是幫助運動員提升表現的有效途徑。然而，參與者推桿時的Fmθ功率以及其他皮質區活動在神經回饋訓練後卻無明顯改變，因此神經回饋訓練促進高爾夫推桿表現的機轉無法在本研究中被說明。未來的研究除了致力於找出神經回饋訓練促進運動表現之機轉外，將神經回饋訓練應用到實際的應用情境中也是可行的方向。

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine whether frontal midline theta (Fmθ) neurofeedback training (NFT) improves golf putting performance as well as self-reported measures of performance-related mental states. An idiographic, single-subject, multiple baselines, across-subjects design was employed. The rationale for such an approach was largely centered upon the work of Patrick and Hrycaiko (1998), who indicated that single-subject designs were the most appropriate methodology for applied research. Methods: The participants in this study were three male elite golfers who were asked to complete eleven sessions, ten putts per session, of putting performance. Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2), Social Validation Assessment, and Practical Assessment Questionnaire were assessed before and after NFT intervention for each participant. Results: The results showed that all three participants improved in their putting performance and experienced highly focused and self-control after NFT intervention. Fmθ and attention-related cortical signatures were not different before and after NFT. Conclusion: It may thus be deduced that NFT intervention benefits athletic performance. However, Fmθ and attention-related cortical activities were not changed after NFT intervention. Therefore, the mechanism of performance enhancement via NFT is still remained a question. Here suggests that future research of NFT should be devoted to the clarification of the underlying mechanism of the effect through NFT and the application of practical sport field.

王永順（2007）。神經回饋訓練對空氣手槍選手T3-α腦波及射擊成績之影響。未出版碩士論文，臺北市立體育學院，臺北市。
吳建霆、洪聰敏（2006）。反應時間快慢與腦波連貫性關係之研究。臺灣運動心理學報，8，1-15。
吳建霆、羅麗娟、林榮輝、石恆星、洪聰敏（2007）。籃球罰球表現與腦波相干性之研究。International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology-Chinese Section, 5, 451-469。
林勝建（2004）。神經回饋訓練對射箭選手腦波及表現之影響。未出版碩士論文，臺北市立體育學院，臺北市。
洪聰敏（2010）。額中葉theta波與高爾夫球推桿表現之研究。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究成果報告（編號：NSC98-2410-H-003-124-MY2），未出版。
高士竣、黃崇儒、洪聰敏（2009）。較佳精準運動表現中專注的腦波特徵。中華體育季刊，23，1-16。
高士竣、黃崇儒、洪聰敏（2010）。生物反饋訓練在運動中對覺醒水準與注意力控制的效果。國際運動及鍛鍊心理學期刊，2010，8，223-245。
黃英哲、季力康（1994）。動動機氣候與自覺能力對賽前狀態焦慮和滿足感的相關研究。體育學報，18，321-332。
黃至寬（2010）。神經回饋訓練對高爾夫球選手推桿表現之影響。未出版碩士論文，臺北市立教育大學，臺北市。
Arns, M., Kleinnijenhuis, M., Fallahpour, K., & Breteler, R. (2007). Golf performance enhancement and real-life neurofeedback training using perdonalized event-locked EEG profiles. Journal of Neurotherapy, 11, 11-18.
Asada, H., Fukuda, Y., Tsunoda, S., Yamaguchi, M., & Tonoike, M. (1999). Frontal midline theta rhythms reflect alternative activation of prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulated cortex in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 274, 29-32.
Babiloni, C., Percio, C. D., Iacoboni, M., Infarinato, F., Lizio, R., Marzano, N. et al. (2008). Golf putt outcomes are predicted by sensorimotor cerebral EEG rhythms. The Journal of Physiology, 586, 131-139.
Baumeister, J., Reinecke, K., Liesen, H., & Weiss, M. (2008). Cortical activity of skilled performance in a complex sports related motor task. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 104, 625-631.
Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (1996). Neuroscience: Expolring the brain. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
Beilock, S. L., & Gray, B. (2007). Why do athletes choke under pressure. In G. Tenenbaum, R. C. Eklund, & R. N. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 425-444). New York: John Wiley and Sons
Blanchard, E. B., & Goodstein, L. H. (1978). A biofeedback primer. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Blumenstein, B. (2002). Biofeedback application in sport and exercise: Research findings. In B. Blumenstein, M. Bar-Eli, & G. Tenenbaum (Eds.), Brain and body in sport and exercise: Biofeedback applications in performance enhancement (pp. 37-54). New York: Wiley.
Blumenstein, B., & Bar-Eli, M. (1998). Self-regulation training with biofeedback training in elite canoers and kayaker. Special issue. In V. Issurin (Ed.), Science and practice of canoe/kayak high-performance training (pp. 124-132). Elite Sport Department, Wingate Insitute, Israel.
Bryan, A. J. (1987). Single-subject designs for evaluation of sport psychology interventions. Sport Psychology, 1, 283-292.
Buschman, T. J., & Miller, E. K. (2007). Top-down versus bottom-up control of attention in the prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices. Science, 315, 1860-1862.
Catley, D., & Duda, J. L. (1997). Psychological antecedents of the frequency and intensity of flow in golfers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28, 309–322.
Chen, J., Hung, T., Lin, J., Lo, L., Kao, J., Hung, C. et al. (2005). Effects of anxiety on EEG coherence during dart throw. Paper presented at the 2005 World Congress of the International Society for Sport Psychology, Sydney, Australia.
Chuang, L., Ke, T., & Hung, T. (2009). Frontal theta difference between successful and unsuccessful basketball free throw of skilled basketball player. Paper presented at the 2009 World Congress of the International Society for Sport Psychology, Marrakesh, Morocco.
Cohn, P. J. (1991). An exploratory study on peak performance in golf. The Sport Psychologist, 5, 1-14.
Crews, D. L. (1989). The influence of attentive states on golf putting as indicated by cardiac and electrocortical activity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Temp, AZ.
Deeny, S. P., Hillman, C. H., Janelle, C. M., & Hatfield, B. D. (2003). Cortico-cortical communication and superior performance in skilled marksmen: An EEG coherence analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25, 188-204.
Demos, J. N. (2005). Getting started with neurofeedback. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Doppelmayr, M., Finkenzeller, T., & Sauseng, P. (2008). Frontal midline theta in the pre-shot phase of rifle shooting: Differences between experts and novice. Neuropsychologia, 46, 1463-1467.
Druckman, D., & Bjork, R. A. (1991). In the mind’s eye: Enhancing human performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Egner, T., & Gruzelier, J. H. (2001). Learned self-regulation of EEG frequency components affects attention and even-related brain potentials in humans. Neuroreport, 12, 4155-4160.
Fitt, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Learning and skilled performance in human performance. Belmont, CA: Brock-Cole.
Gevins, A., Smith, M. E., McEvoy, L., & Yu, D. (1997). High-resolution EEG mapping of cortical activation related to working memory: Effects of task difficulty, type of processing, and practice. Cerebral Cortex, 7, 374-385.
Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic Champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172–204.
Gould, D., Ecklund, R. C., & Jackson, S. A. (1992). 1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Excellence: II. thoughts and affect occurring during competition. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 383-402.
Hamilton, S. A., & Fremouw, W. J. (1985). Cognitive-behavior training for college basketball free-throw performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 479-483.
Hanslmayr, S., Sauseng, P., Doppelmayr, M., Schabus, M., & Klimesch, W. (2005). Increasing individual upper alpha power by neurofeedback improves cognitive performance in human subjects. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 30, 1-10.
Hardt, J. V., & Gale, R. (1993). Creativity increases in scientists through alpha EEG feedback training. Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. CA: Los Angeles.
Hatfield, B. D., & Hillman, C. H. (2001). The psychophysiology of sport: A mechanistic understanding of the psychology of superior performance. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 362-388). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hatfield, B. D., Haufler, A. J., Hung, T. M., & Spalding, T. W. (2004). Electroence -phalographic studies of skilled psychomotor performance. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiologyl, 21, 144–156.
Hatfield, B. D., Landers, D. M., & Ray, W. J. (1984). Cognitive processes during self-paced motor performance: An electroencephalographic profile of skilled marksmen. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 42-59.
Haufler, A. J., Spalding, T. W., Santa Maria, D. L., & Hatifield, B. D. (2000). Neuro-cognitive activity during a self-paced visuospatial task: Comparative EEG profiles in marksmen and novice shooters. Biological Psychology, 53, 131-160.
Hrycaiko, D., & Martin, G. L. (1996). Applied research studies with single-subject designs: Why so few? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8, 183–199.
Ishihara, T., & Yoshii, N. (1966). Activation of abnormal EEG by mental work. Clinical Electroencephalography, 8, 26-34.
Janelle, C. J., Duley, A. A., & Coombes, S. A. (2004). Psychophysiological and related indices of attention during motor skill acquisition. In A. M. Williams, & N. J. Hodges (Eds.), Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice (pp. 282-308). London: Routledge.
Jensen, O., & Tesche, C. D. (2002). Frontal theta activity in humans increases with memory load in a working memory task. European Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 1395-1399.
Kearns, D. W., & Crossman, J. (1992). Effects of a cognitive intervention package on the free-throw performance of varsity basketball players during practice and competition. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 1243-1253.
Kerick, S. E., Douglass, L. W., & Hatfield, B. D. (2004). Cerebral cortical adaptations associated with visuomotor practice. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36, 118-129.
Kinugasa, T., Cerin, E., & Hooper, S. (2004). Single-subject research designs and data analyses for assessing elite athlete’s conditioning. Sports Medicine, 34, 1035-1050
Kladopoulos, C. N., & McComas, J. J. (2001). The effects of form training on foul-shooting performance in members of a women's college basketball team. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 329-332.
Klimesch, W. (1999). EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: A review and analysis. Brain Research Reviews, 29, 169-195.
Kononen, M., & Partanen, J. V. (1993). Blocking of EEG alpha activity during visual performance in healthy adults: A quantitative study. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 87, 164-170.
Krause, C. M., Sillanmaki, L., Koivisto, M., Saarela, C., Haggqvist, A., Laine, M. et al. (2000). The effects of memory load on event-related EEG desynchronization and synchronization. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111, 2071-2078.
Landers, D. M. (1989). Sport psychology: A commentary. In J. S. Skinner, C. B. Corbin, D. M. Landers, P. E. Martin, & C. L. Wells (Eds.) Future directions is exercise and sport science research. Champagne, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers (pp. 475-486)
Landers, D. M., Han, M., Salazar, W. Petruzzello, S. J., Kubitz, K. A., & Gannon, T. L. (1994). Effects of learning on electroencephalographic and electrocardiographic patterns in novice archers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 25, 313-330.
Landers, D. M., Petruzzello, S. J,. Salazar, W., Crews, D. J., Kubitz, K. A., Gannon, T. L. et al. (1991). The influence of electrocortical biofeedback on performance in pre-elite archers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 123-129.
Linden, M., Habib T., & Radojevic, V. A. (1996). A controlled study of the effects of EEG biofeedback on cognition and behavior of children with attention deficit disorder and learning disabilities. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 21, 35-51.
Loze, G. M., Collins, D., & Holmes, P. (2001). Pre-shot EEG alpha-power reactivity during expert air-pistol shooting: A comparison of best and worst shots. Journal of Sports Science, 19, 727-733.
Lubar, J. F. (1997). Neocortical Dynamics: Implications for understanding the role of neurofeedback and related techniques for the enhancement of attention. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 22, 111-126.
Martens, R., Burton, D., Vealey, R., Smith, D., & Bump, L.(1990). The development of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). In R. Martens, R. S. Vealey, & D. Burton (Eds.), Competitive anxiety in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Martin, G., Thompson, K., & Regehr, K. (2004). Studies using single-subject designs in sport psychology: 30 years of research. The Behavior Analyst, 27, 263-280.
McCaffrey, N., & Orlick, T. (1989). Mental factors related to excellence among top professional golfers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 20, 256-278.
Moss, D. (1994). Twenty-fifth anniversary yearbook. Wheat Ridge, CO: Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.
Nunez, P. L. (1995). Neuromodulation of neocortical dynamics. In P .L. Nunez (Ed.), Neurocortical dynamics and human EEG rhythms (pp. 591-627). New York: Oxford University Press.
Onton, J., Delorme, A., & Makeig, S. (2005). Frontal midline EEG dynamics during working memory. Neuroimage, 27, 341-356.
Osaka, M., Komori, M., Morishita, M., & Osaka, N. (2007). Neural bases of focusing attention in working memory: An fMRI study based on group differences. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 130–139.
Pates, J., Cummings, A., & Maynard, I. (2002). The effects of hypnosis on flow states and three-point shooting performance in basketball players. The Sport Psychologist, 16, 34-47.
Pates, J., Karageorghis, C. I., Fryer, R., & Maynard, I. (2003). Effects of asynchronous music on flow states and shooting performance among netball players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, 413-427.
Pates, J., Oliver, R., & Maynard, I. (2001). The effects of hypnosis on flow states and golf-putting performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 341-354.
Patrick, T. D., & Hrycaiko, D. W. (1988). Effects of a mental training package on an endurance performance. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 283-299.
Pfurtscheeler, G., & Aranibar, A. (1977). Event-related cortical desynchronization detected by power measurements of scalp EEG. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 42, 817-826.
Pfurtscheller, G., & Lopes da Silva, F. (1999). Event-related EEG/MEG synchronization and desynchronization: Basic principles. Clinical. Neurophysiology. 110, 1842–1857
Ray, W. J. (1990). The electrocortical system. In J. T. Cacioppo, & L. G. Tassinary. (Eds.), Principles of psychophysiology: Physical social and inferential elements. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Raymond, J., Sajid I., Parkinson, L. A., & Gruzelier, J. H. (2005). Biofeedback and dance performance: A preliminary investigation. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 30, 65-73.
Rogers, W. A., Rousseau, G. K., & Fisk, A. D. (1999). Applications of attention research. In F. T. Durso, R. S. Nickerson, R. W. Schvaneveldt, S. T. Dumais, D. S. Lindsay, & M. T. H. Chi (Eds.), Handbook of applied cognition (pp, 33-55). Chichester, England: Wiley.
Rossieter, T. R., & LaVaque, T. J. (1995). A comparison of EEG biofeedback and psychostimulants in treating attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1, 48–59.
Salazar, W., Landers, D. M., Petruzzello, S. J., Crews, D. J., & Kubitz, K. A. (1990). The effects of physical/cognitive load on electrocortical patterns preceding response execution in archery. Research Quarterly of Exercise and Sport, 61, 351-359.
Sauseng, P., Hoppe, J., Klimesch, W., Gerloff, C., & Hummel, F. (2007). Dissociation of sustained attention from central executive functions: Local activity and interregional connectivity in the theta range. European Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 587-593.
Sauseng, P., Klimesch, W., Freunberger, R., Pecherstorfer, T., Hanslmayr, S., & Doppelmayr, M. (2006). Relevance of EEG alpha and theta oscillations during task switching. Experimental Brain Research, 170, 295–301.
Sauseng, P., Klimesch, W., Schabus, M., & Doppelmayr, M. (2005) Frontoparietal coherence in theta and upper alpha reflect central executive functions of working memory. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 57, 97–103.
Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2005). Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Schneider, W., Dumais, S. T., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1984). Automatic and control processing and attention. In R. Parasuraman, & R. Davids (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 1-27). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Sterman, M. B. (1996). Physiological origins and functional correlates of EEG rhythmic activities: Implication for self-regulation. Biofeedback and Self-regulation, 21, 3-33.
Sterman, M. B., & Friar, L. (1972). Suppression of seizures in an epileptic following sensorimotor EEG feedback training. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 33, 89-95.
Sterman, M. B., Macdonald, L. R., & Stone, R. K. (1974). Biofeedback training of the sensorimotor electroencephalogram rhythm in man: Effects on epilepsy. Epilepsia, 15, 395-416.
Templin, D. P., & Vernacchia, R. A. (1995). The effect of highlight music videotapes upon the game performance of intercollegiate basketball players. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 41-50.
Vernon, D., Egner, T., Copper, N., Compton, T., Neilands, C., Sheri, A. et al. (2003). The effect of training distinct neurofeedback protocols on aspects of cognitive performance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 47, 75-85.
Williams, J. M., & Krane, V. (1993). Psychological characteristics of peak performance. In J. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 137-147). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.