漢語對話言談中的引述結構
摘要
引述結構意指當前說話者(current speaker)重述或評論原先說話者(original speaker)的話語, 並明確指出原先說話者是誰. 引述結構通常分類成直接引述與間接引述. 本研究的語料約四個半小時, 含二十一個對話. 論文中探討引述結構在漢語對話言談中的形式與功能, 並探究話語框架(speech frame), 思想框架(thought frame), 因說者與聽者之互動而虛化的現象.
能顯示立場轉變的語言形式, 包括指示詞(deixis), 虛詞(particle), 聲韻(prosody), 語言轉換(code-switching)等. 其中, 主要指示詞(primary deixis), 即代名詞(pronominal), 和言談虛詞(discourse particle), 感嘆詞(interjection), 呼喚詞(vocative), 及語言轉換(code-switching), 皆能有效的分辨直接引述或間接引述. 語料分析結果顯示, 直接引述與間接引述的分布相當平均: 41.51% vs. 40.43%. 但在 "３?#34?#34 與 "@媒" 兩個語料中, 直接引述顯然比間接引述更常用: 125 vs. 67. 將兩語料除外, 則間接引述幾乎是直接引述的兩倍: 121 vs. 68. 這顯示大部分的人在大部分的時候, 都使用間接引述. 即使將引述結構分類成 "W立", "W白", 與 "" 引述, 獨立間接引述仍比獨立直接引述多得多: 163 vs. 98. 因此, 根據我的語料, 在漢語對話言談中, 間接引述是普遍的, 無標的(unmarked)引述結構.
引述結構的言談功能可分成篇章結構(textual)與社會互動(socio-interactional)兩個層次來探討. 在篇章結構的層次, 引述結構, 無論何種形式, 可用來引介或結束話題, 形成對比, 提供證據, 或只是報導曾發生過的言語行為, 或證實或澄清先前的話語. 其中, 提供證據是引述結構最典型的功能. 通常藉由引述第三者, 說話者可以與此第三者結盟, 而又不必受到立即查詢的威脅. 但在社會互動的層次, 說話者是利用直接引述讓聽者能專注並主動參與對話, 是利用直接引述中聲音暗中滲透(covert infiltration of voice)的特點, 來表達情緒或態度. 直接引述能讓說話者扮演原先說話者的角色, 而有戲劇性的展現, 進而演出互動的意義, 表演本身就已顯現直接引述在當前語境的特出性. 因此, 直接引述能執行間接引述所不能的情感功能.
根據斷代的語料, 可觀察出話語框架 "睇?#34 "A說", 因說者與聽者的互動, 而顯現出虛化的現象. "睇?#34 基本上是引介自我引述, 其主要目的是宣稱自己的意見, 同時與該引述保持距離. 接著藉由轉喻推論(metonymic inferencing), 話語引述蛻變成思想(引述). 有時, "睇?#34 是言談行為(speech act) 的具體呈現, 其主要目的是引起聽者的注意. 說話者使用 "睇?#34 來宣稱自己的意見, 但當使用 "A說" 時, 說話者是在要求證實或認同. 有時 "A說" 中, "?#34 的語意成份{說}也漸漸消失. 經由語用推論(pragmatic inferencing), "A說" 甚至能引介表讓步的條件子句. 語用推論也讓 "A說" 虛化成一篇章虛詞, 以尋求合著關係(coauthorship).
思想引述(reported thought)與話語引述有很多相同之處. 兩者在句型結構上都有報導子句(reporting clause)與被報導子句(reported clause). 兩者皆有直接引述與間接引述. 但兩者仍有顯著的差異. 首先, 直接思想引述比間接思想引述普遍. 而且思想引述大部份都是以第一人稱為其思想來源. 高頻率的第一人稱想者(first person thinker)導致 "矬控o" "皕Q" 的虛化現象. "矬控o" "皕Q" 已虛化成一篇章框架(discourse framer), 標示一篇章單位的開始, 並且連慣互動的對話篇章.
總之, 引述結構的形式與功能, 告訴我們為什麼在對話中要使用引述結構, 以及直接引述與間接引述如何不同, 而話語框架與思想框架的虛化現象, 告訴我們語用如何塑造文法.

Abstract

Reported speech is speech within speech, i.e. a current speaker repeats or comments on a speech of an original speaker and mentions the source speaker overtly. Reported speech is usually classified into direct speech and indirect speech. My data last about four hours and a half. In this dissertation, I have explored the forms and functions of reported speech in Mandarin conversational discourse, and investigated the grammaticalization or semantic weakening of the speech frames wo shuo 'I say' and ni shuo 'you say' and the thought frames wo juede 'I feel, I think' and wo xiang 'I think,' because of the interaction between the speaker and the hearer in conversation.
Linguistic devices that signal the transposition from the current perspective to the original perspective includes deixis, particles, prosody, code-switching, etc. Among the indexical devices identified, the primary deixis, i.e. pronominals, discourse particles, interjections, vocatives, and code-switching are effective indicators of whether a reported speech is direct or indirect. Analysis of my data shows that direct speech and indirect speech are fairly evenly distributed: 41.51% vs. 40.43%. Yet in Gossip and Matchmaking, direct speech is clearly preferred over indirect speech: 125 vs. 67. Not counting these two conversations, the number of indirect speech is nearly twice the number of direct speech: 121 vs. 68, which means that a majority of speakers use indirect speech most of the time. Even when reported speech is classified into isolated, monologic, and dialogic reported speech, the instances of isolated indirect speech still far outnumber those of isolated direct speech: 163 vs. 98. Thus based on my data, indirect speech is the preferred, unmarked form of reported speech in Mandarin conversational discourse.
The functions of reported speech are explored at the textual and socio-interactional levels. At the textual level, reported speech, in whichever form, functions to introduce or conclude a topic, to contrast with a prior claim, to provide evidence for a previous claim, to report a previous speech event only, and to confirm or clarify a previous utterance. Among them, providing evidence is the prototypical function of reported speech. Usually by quoting a third party, the speaker is able to enter into alliance with this third party who is not available for scrutiny at least for now. But at the socio-interactional level, it is direct speech that is used to involve the addressee to participate actively, to show emotions or attitudes toward a person through covert infiltration of voice into the quotation. Direct speech enables the speaker to play the role of the original speaker such that the speaker can dramatize his presentation and act out the interactive meaning. The acting indicates the markedness of direct speech in light of the current context. So direct speech performs special affective functions in a way that indirect speech cannot.
Based on the synchronic data, the speech frames wo shuo and ni shuo are detected to be undergoing grammaticalization or semantic weakening owing to the interaction between the speaker and the hearer. Wo shuo typically introduces a self-quotation. I quote myself to assert my opinion but at the same time distance myself from impact caused by the quoted speech. Then through metonymic inferencing, reported speech turns into (reported) thought. Sometimes wo shuo is an overt realization of the speech act of saying, whose primary function is to get the addressee's attention. The speaker uses wo shuo to assert his opinion, but when he uses ni shuo as the speech frame, he is asking for confirmation or recognition. Like wo shuo, the sense of saying of shuo in some cases of ni shuo has also faded away. Ni shuo has developed to introduce a concessive conditional clause through pragmatic inferencing. Pragmatic inferencing also works on the grammaticalization of ni shuo into a discourse particle seeking coauthorship.
Reported thought has a lot in common with reported speech. They both are syntactically encoded with a framing clause and a framed clause. Both speech and thought can be reported in direct and indirect forms. But there are significant differences between the two. First of all, direct thought is preferred over indirect thought. And most reported thoughts couple with the first person thinkers. The high frequency of first person thinker has contributed to semantic weakening of wo juede and wo xiang, which have been grammaticalized into a discourse framer, marking the beginning of a discourse unit, usually a turn, and organizing the interactive discourse coherently.
To sum up, the forms and functions of reported speech tell us why reported speech is used in conversation and how direct speech is different from indirect speech. The grammaticalization or semantic weakening of the speech frames wo shuo and ni shuo and the thought frames wo juede and wo xiang tell us that language use is shaping grammar, i.e. grammar is emergent.

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