本研究在探討前置組織因子應用於影片教學中的效果以及學生對於前置組織因子和透過影片學習外語的看法。本研究所探討的兩種前置組織因子為圖像輔助以及生字教學。
111位台灣高職學生受邀參與這項研究。首先，學生分別接受圖像輔助以及生字教學，接著觀看影片，之後完成一份紙筆測驗；測驗的題目是針對影片內容設計出的十題選擇題，目的是要測量學生對於影片內容的了解程度。在經歷兩種前置組織因子教學，觀看影片，以及完成紙筆測驗之後，學生最後填寫了一份問卷；問卷的第一部分調查學生的性別、姓名、年齡、學習英文的時間長短、以及以前是否已經看過本研究所使用的影片，問卷的第二及第三部分是要探究學生對於兩種前置組織因子的看法、喜好程度，以及對於透過影片學習外語的看法和建議。資料以SPSS軟體作統計分析。
研究結果顯示：第一，整體而言，兩種前置組織因子都能有效的幫助學生了解影片內容，然而圖像輔助的效果優於生字教學。第二，學生對於兩種前置組織因子都持有正面的看法，然而學生對於生字教學的喜好程度超越圖像輔助。第三，學生對於透過影片學習英文表示支持，但是學生希望老師能從旁提供適當的輔助。本研究針對結果將對前導組織因子提出討論以提升學生的英語聽力並且促進影片教學品質。

Listening is the most frequently used skill in daily communication as well as in language classrooms. Applying authentic materials through foreign videos to enhancing listening ability is becoming popular. This study compares the effect of two advance organizers—visual contextual cues and vocabulary pre-teaching—on Taiwanese vocational high school students’ comprehension of English videos. In addition, students’ attitude toward the advance organizers and learning English through video viewing are also investigated.
111 EFL students with low language proficiency participated in the study. They were first presented with the two advance organizers and then viewed the videos twice. After video viewing, students were required to finish multiple choice comprehension tests and a questionnaire. Latin Square Design was employed in data collection, and the collected data were statistically analyzed.
The result shows that both of the advance organizers are effective in facilitating comprehension. However, visual contextual cues led to more effective comprehension. Besides, students liked both the advance organizers, but they showed more fondness for vocabulary pre-teaching. Finally, students appreciated learning English through video viewing, and yet they expected teachers’ support. Implications of employing advance organizers and the use of videos for comprehension are discussed.

Anderson, A. and Lynch, T. (1988). Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Anderson, R. A. (1984). Role of reader’s schema in comprehension, learning and memory. In R. A. Anderson (Ed.), Learning to read in American schools. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Anderson, R. C. and Freebody, P. (1983). Vocabulary knowledge. In H. Singer and R. B. Ruddell (Eds.). Theoretical models and processes of reading. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Anderson, R. C., Reynolds, R. E., Diane, L. S., and Goetz, E. T. (1977). Frameworks for comprehending discourse. American Educational Research Journal, 14, 367-382.
Anderson, J. R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: W. H Freeman.
Armstrong, R. (1987). The midpoint on a five-point Likert-type scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 64, 359-362.
Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272.
Ausubel, D. P. (1961). The role of discriminability in meaningful verbal learning and retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, 266-274.
Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Ausubel, D. P. (1978) Educational Psychology: A cognitive view (2nd ed.). New York: Grune and Stratton.
Bacon, S. M. (1989). Listening for real in the foreign-language classroom. Foreign Language Annuals, 22, 543-550.
Bech, I. L., McKeown, M. G.., and Kucan, L. (2001). Bringing words to life: robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford Press.
Belasco, S. (1965). Nucleation and the Audio-lingual Approach. The Modern Language Journal, 44, 482-491.
Berne, E. (1993). The role of text type, assessment task and target language experience in L2 listening comprehension assessment. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the American Association of Applied Linguistics and the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, Cancun, Mexico, August 9-13, 1992. ED 358737.
Berne, J. E. (1995). How does varying pre-listening activities affect second language comprehension? Hispania, 78, 316-329.
Bernhardt, E. B. (1991). Reading development in a second language: The oriental, empirical, and classroom perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Berwald, J. P. (1985). Video and second language learning. Studies in Language Learning, 5(1), 3-16.
Bird, D. E. (1953). Teaching Listening Comprehension. Journal of Communication, 3, 127-130.
Borras, I., and R. C. Lafayette, (1994). Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling on the speaking performance of college students of French. Modern Language Journal, 78: 61-75.
Bransford, J. D. and Johnson, M. K. (1972). Contextual Prerequisites for Understanding: Some Investigations of Comprehension and Recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 717-26.
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. (2nd ed.) White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
Brown, G. and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spoken language: An approach based on the analysis of conversational English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, J. and Hudson, T. (1998). The alternative in language assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 32, 653-675.
Buck, G. (1991b). The testing of listening comprehension: an introspective study. Language Testing, 8, 67-91.
Cambre, M. A., Grant, M. B., Hay, K. B., and Mayton, G. B. (1992) Implementation of generative learning principles in interactive video using repurpose video materials. Journal of Visual Literary, 12, 35-56.
Caplan, E. (2002). The effects of animated textual instruction on learners’ written production of German model verb sentences. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(11), 3916A. (UMI No. ATT 3071295)
Carrell, P. (1987). Content and formal schemata in ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 461-481.
Chafe, W. and Danielewicz, J. (1987). Properties of spoken and written language. Comprehending Oral and Written Language. Ed. R. Horowitz & S. J. Samuels. San Diego: Academic Press, 83-113.
Chastain, K. (1976). Developing second-language skills: theory to practice (2nd ed.). Rand McNally.
Chiang, C. S. and Dunkel, P. (1992). The effect of speech modification, prior knowledge, and listening proficiency on EFL lecture learning. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 345-374.
Chung, J. M. (1999). The effects of using video texts supported with advance organizers and captions on Chinese college students’ listening comprehension: An empirical study. Foreign Language Annuals, 32, 295-308.
Chung, J. M. (2002). The effects of using two advance organizers with video texts for the teaching of listening in English. Foreign Language Annuals, 35, 231-241.
Chung, J. M. and Huang, S. C. (1998). The effects of three aural advance organizers for video viewing in a foreign language classroom. System, 26, 553-565.
Clark H. H. and Clark, E. V. (1977). Psychology and language: An introduction to psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Conaway, M. (1982). Listening: Listening too and retention agent. In A. S. Algier and K. W. Algier (Eds.).
Cronbach, L. (1975). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 30, 116-127.
Danks, J. H. (1980). Comprehension in listening and reading: same or different? Reading and Understanding. Ed. J. H. Daniels & K. Pezdek. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1-39.
DeVellis, R. F. (1991). Scale development: Theory and application. Newbury Park, NJ: Sage.
Eastman, J. K. (1987). Remedial Training In Listening Comprehension. System, 15, 197-201.
Glass, W. R. (1992). The effects of illustration inclusion, placement, and type, and target language experience on foreign language learners’ comprehension of text (reading comprehension). Diss., Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champion.
Goh, C. (2000). A cognitive perspective on language learners’ listening comprehension problems. Systems, 28, 55-75.
Gough, P. B. and Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6-10.
Hammadou, J. (1990). Interrelationships among prior knowledge, inference, and language proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 75, 27-38.
Hansen, C. and Jensen, C. (1994). Evaluating lecture comprehension. 241-248. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hanley, J. E. B., Herron, C. A., and Cole, S. P. (1995). Using video as an advance organizer to a written passage in the FLES classroom. Modern Language Journal, 79, 57-66.
Herron, C. (1994). An investigation of the effectiveness of using and advance organizer to introduce video in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 190-198.
Herron, C. and Hanley, J. (1992). Using videos to introduce children to a foreign culture. Foreign Language Annuals, 25, 419-426.
Herron, C., Hanley, J., and Cole, S. (1995). Using video as an advance organizer to a written passage in the FLES classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 57-66.
Herron, C., Hanley, J., and Cole, S. (1995). A comparison study of two advance organizers for introducing beginning foreign language students to video. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 387-395.
Herron, C., Cole, S., York, H., and Linden, P. (1998) A comparison study of student retention of foreign language video: declarative versus interrogative advance organizer. The Modern Language Journal, 82: 237–247.
Herron, C. and Seay, I. (1991). The effect of authentic oral texts on student listening comprehension in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annuals, 24, 487-495.
Huang, C. C. (2001). An investigation of ESP students’ vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. In English Teachers’ Association (Ed.), Selected papers from the Tenth International Symposium on English Teaching/Fourth Pan Asian Conference (pp. 436-445). Taipei, Taiwan: English Teachers’ Association.
Hudson, T. (1982). The effects of induced schemata on the ‘short circuit’ in L2 reading: Non decoding factors in L2 reading performance. Language Learning, 32, 1-32.
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Jensen, P. and Hansen, C. (1995). The effect of prior knowledge on EAP listening-test performance. Language Testing, 12, 99-119.
Ji, K. L. (1995) An evaluation of a testing model for listening comprehension. Paper presented at the Beijing-Xian International conference on foreign language teaching and testing.
Johnson, P. (1982). Effects on comprehension of building background knowledge. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 503-516.
Josh, R. M. (2005). Vocabulary: A critical component of comprehension. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 21 (3), 209-219.
Just, M. A. and Carpenter, P. A. (1985). The psychology of reading and language comprehension. Boston, MA; Allyn and Bacon.
Klesius, J., Griffith, P., and Zielonka, P. (1991). A whole language and traditional instruction comparison: Overall effectiveness and development of the alphabetic principle. Reading Research and Instruction, 30, 47-61.
Lai, H. M. (1984). Attitudes and Attained EFL Proficiency: A Study of the Chinese Senior High School Students. Unpublished master’s thesis, Graduate Institute of English, NTNU.
Lee, C. N. (1986). Improving listening skills: some strategies and materials. Journal Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Bahasa, 3, 26-37.
Levie, W. H. and Lentz, R. (1982). Effects of text illustrations: a review of research. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 30, 195-232.
Levin, J. R. On the functions of pictures in prose. Ed. F. J. Pirozzolo and M. C. Wittrock. Neuropsychological and Cognitive Processes in Reading. New York: Academy Press, 203-228.
Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitude scales. Archives of Psychology, 140.
Long, D. R. (1990). What you don’t know can’t help you: an exploratory study of background knowledge and second language listening comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 65-80.
Long, M. H. (1981). Native speaker / non-native speaker conversation in the second language classroom. Ed. H. Winitz. Native language and foreign language acquisition. Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences no. 379. New York: Academy of sciences.
Lund, R. J. (1991). The effects of listening tasks on comprehension. Paper, Annual symposium of research perspectives in adult language learning and acquisition, Columbus, Ohio.
Lund, R. J. (1991). A comparison of second language listening and reading comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 196-204.
Luppescu, S., and Day, R. (1990). Examining attitude in teachers and students: The need to validate questionnaire data. Second Language Research, 6, 125-134.
Markham, P. L. and Latham, M. (1987). The influence of religion-specific background knowledge on listening comprehension of adult second language students. Language Learning, 37, 157-170.
McKelvie, S. (1978). Graphic rating scales-How many categories? British Journal of Psychology, 69, 185-202.
Mohammed, M. A. H. and Swales, J. M. (1984). Factors affecting the successful reading of technical instructions. Reading in a foreign language, 2, 206-217.
Mueller,G. A. (1980). Visual contextual cues and listening comprehension: An experiment. Modern Language Journal, 64, 335-340.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunnelly, J. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Omaggio, A. C. (1979). Pictures and second language comprehension: Do they help? Foreign Language Annuals, 35, 107-116.
O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A.U. and Kupper, L. (1989). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Applied linguistics, 10, 418-437.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and deep structure in the recall of English nominalizations. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 668-672.
Paivio, A. (1997). Mental representations. New York: Oxford University Press.
Paulston, C. B. and Bruder, M. N. (1976) Teaching English as a Second Language - Techniques and Procedures. Boston: Little Brown & Company.
Rankin, P. T. (1929). The importance of Listening Ability. English Journal, 17, 623-630.
Reese, H. W. (1997). Counterbalancing and other uses of repeated-measures Latin-square design: analyses and interpretation. Journal of experimental child psychology, 64, 137-158.
Reid, J. (1990). The dirty laundry of ESL survey research. TESOL Quarterly, 24, 323-338.
Richards, J. C. (1983). Listening comprehension: approach, design, procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 17, 219-239.
Richards, J. C. (1990). The language teaching matrix. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge Universirt Press.
Rixon, S. (1986). Developing Listening Skills. London. Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Rivers, W. M. and Temperley, M. S. (1971). A Practical Guide To The Teaching Of English As A Second Language. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rixon, S. (1986). Developing Listening Skills. London. Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Rost., M. (1990). Listening in language learning. London and New York: Longman.
Rost., M. (1994). Introducing listening. London: Penguin.
Rubin, J. (1990). Improving foreign language listening comprehension. Georgetown University Round Table. Ed. J. E. Alatis. Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press, 309-316.
Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language listening comprehension research. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 199-221.
Rubin J., and Thompson, I. (1992). Materials selection in strategy instruction for Russian listening comprehension. ERIC Document No. ED 3349796.
Rupley, W. H. and Nichols, W. D. (2005). Vocabulary instruction for the struggling reader. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 21, 239-260.
Savignon, S. (1983). Communicative competence: theory and classroom practice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Schmidt-Rinehart, B. C. (1994). The effects of topic familiarity on second language listening comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 179-189.
Secules, T., Herron, C., and Tomasello, M. (1992). The effects of video context on foreign language learning. Modern Language Journal, 76, 480-490.
Sherman, J. (1997). The effect of question preview in listening comprehension tests. Language Testing, 14, 185-213.
Shohamy, E. and Inbar, O. (1991). Validation of listening comprehension tests: the effect of text and question-type. Language Testing, 8, 23-40.
Shrum, J. L. and Gilsan, E. W. (1994) Teacher’s handbook. Boston: Heinle.
Smith, F. (1971). Understanding Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Stahl, S. and Fairbanks, M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 56, 72-110.
Steffensen, M. S., Joag-Dev, C., and Anderson, R. C. (1979). A cross-cultural perspective on reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 15, 10-29.
Stern, R., Knock, J., and Burn, R. (1990). A statistical package for microcomputers. Reading: Statistical Services Centre, Reading University.
Sticht, T. G. and James, H. J. (1984). Listening and Reading. Handbook of Reading Research. Ed. P. D. Pearson. New York: Longman, 295-317.
Sun, K. C. (2002). Investigation of English Listening Difficulties of Taiwan Students. Selected papers from the eleventh international symposium on English teaching, fourth Pan-Asian conference.
Svensson, S. E. (1985). Video, authenticity, and language for special purposes teaching. Foreign Language Annuals, 18, 149-152.
Swaffar, J. and Bacon, S. (1993). Reading and listening comprehension: Perspectives on research and implications for practice. In A. Omaggio Hadley (Ed.), Research in language learning. The ACTEL Foreign Language Education Series (pp. 124-156). Lincolnwood. IL: National Textbook Company.
Swaffer, J. and Vlatten, A. (1997). A sequential model for video viewing in the foreign language. Modern Language Journal, 81, 175-188.
Taglieber, L. K., Johnson, L. L. and Yarbrough, D. B. (1988). Effects of pre-reading activities on EFL reading by Brazilian college students. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 455-4771.
Teng, H. C.(1994) The effects of visual cues on the EFL listening comprehension by technology college students in Taiwan. Papers from the 9th T.V.E. Conference of R.O.C. 247-258.
Teng, H. C. (2002). An Investigation of EFL Listening Difficulties for Taiwanese. College Students. Selected papers from the eleventh international symposium on English teaching, fourth Pan-Asian conference.
Vanderplank, R. (1988). The value of teletext subtitles in language learning. EFT Journal, 42, 272-281.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press.
Watson, K. and Smeltzer, L. (1984). Barriers to listening: Comparison between students and practitioners. Communication Research Reports, 1, 82-87.
Weissenrieder, M. (1998). Listening to the news in Spanish. Modern Language Journal, 71, 18-27.
Wilberschied, L. and Berman, P. M. (2004). Effect of using photos from authentic video as advance organizers on listening comprehension in an FLES Chinese class. Foreign Language Annuals, 37, 534-540.
Wilt, M. E. (1950). A Study of Teacher Awareness of Listening as a Factor in Elementary Education. Journal of Educational Research, 43, 626-639.
Wolff, D. (1987). Some assumption about second language text comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 307-326.
Yan, M. (2006). An investigations of the factors affecting Chinese students’ listening comprehension of English. Sino-US English Teaching, 3, 27-30.
Yen, A. C. (1987). An Assessment of Listening Comprehension Difficulties Encountered by Chinese College English Majors. Unpublished master's thesis, Graduate Institute of English, NTNU.