本研究透過文件分析、概念分析及哲學詮釋學之方法探究夏普、史密斯及唐納森學校露營教育理念與實踐情形，及其對我國戶外教育之蘊義。具體而言，本研究主要目的有五：（一）探究夏普、史密斯與唐納森推行美國中小學學校露營教育之時代背景與發展；（二）分析夏普、史密斯與唐納森的學校露營教育理念；（三）探討夏普、史密斯與唐納森推行美國中小學學校露營教育的實例；（四）歸納與評析夏普、史密斯與唐納森的學校露營教育理念及其實踐的特質與相關問題；（五）基於對前述三位推倡者理念與實踐的分析，省思其對我國近年來有關戶外教育相關政策之蘊義，並且研提建構我國童軍戶外學校之原則與方向。
本研究得到以下八點結論：一、1930至1950年代，美國中小學學校露營教育的發展，主要是在當時工業化、都市化的背景下，人需要回歸自然與群居生活；夏普、史密斯與唐納森以進步主義的教育觀點，重新反省組織型露營遊憩取向、體制僵化課程呆板的缺點，強調露營的教育功能，並極力主張由學校辦理露營教育。二、史密斯與唐納森學校露營教育理念師承於夏普，夏普露營教育理念主要是在哥倫比亞大學求學期間，受到杜威、克伯屈及龐錫等新教育學派學者的理念及著作影響；而夏普的露營教育課程設計原則為小團體、去中心化及向戶外自然環境學習，在活動內容的設計上，則以印地安人的題材為基礎，並參考美國童軍活動、基督教青年會及美國露營協會所辦理的露營活動。三、夏普在學校露營教育上，最重要的理念就是，如果在教室裡學習其效果較好，那就在教室裡學習，而如果在營地裡透過直接體驗學習，其效果較好，那就應該在營地中學習。四 、學校露營教育的定義為，學校於學期間，在營地有效使用自然環境所實行的教學活動，它是學校課程的一部份，強調以露營參與者為中心的設計理念，透過學生直接體驗與民主共同生活方式，培養學生健康身體、健全人格、民主團體生活，以及對自然體驗與瞭解，它是學校學科課程的實驗室、生活教育的實踐場以及戶外遊憩的體驗場。五、夏普、史密斯與唐納森所推行的學校露營教育課程方案，重視師資培育，在法令、組織管理及課程教學方面皆有明確依據，對我國學校露營教育理念的擴展以及實施方法均有足供參酌之處。六、主事者、家長的教育理念與推倡者的作為是影響學校露營教育是否能持續推動的重要關鍵。七、美國學校露營教育在自主性課程設計、經費來源、環境保育、師資培育過程、生活移轉問題、課程融入自然環境問題、課程評鑑問題遭到困難與爭辯。八、露營模式的戶外教育課程是融入十二年國民基本教育的可行途徑。
最後，根據本研究發現，分別對教育主管機關、國民中學教師及未來研究三方面，提出建議。

In this study, the idea and practice of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s school camping and the implications for Taiwan’s outdoor education were investigated with documentary researich, conceptual analysis and philosophical hermeneutics. In specific terms, this study had five objectives: (1) to investigate the background and development of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s implementation of school camping in elementary and junior high schools in the U.S.; (2) to analyze the idea of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s school camping ; (3) to investigate the cases of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s implementation of school camping in elementary and junior high schools in the U.S.; (4) to organize and critique the characteristics and relevant questions on the idea and practice of Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson’s school camping; (5) based on the analysis of the idea and practice of the three researchers, to reflect on the implications on Taiwan’s outdoor education policies in recent years and to suggest the principles and approaches for the establishment of Taiwan’s outdoor scout school.
This study obtained the following eight conclusions: 1. From the 1930s to the 1950s, school camping in elementary and junior high schools in the U.S. developed in a backdrop of industrialization and urbanization and with the need to return to a natural and communal lifestyle. From the perspective of progressive education, Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson reflected on the organized camping and recreation approach and the drawbacks of rigid curricular systems, stressed the educational benefits of camping, and advocated school-organized camping education. Smith and Donaldson’s idea of school camping descended from Sharp’s. Sharp’s philosophy of school camping was mainly influenced by the philosophy and works of education researchers including Dewey, Kilpatrick, and Bonser when he was studying at Columbia University. Sharp’s course design for camping education was based on small groups, decentralization, and learning from the natural environment outdoors. In terms of activities, it was based on American Indian elements with reference to American scout activities and camping activities organized by Young Men’s Christian Association and the American Camp Association. 3. The essence of Sharp’s idea of school camping was that when classroom learning achieves the best results, learn in the classroom, and when campground learning achieves the best results, learn on the camp ground. 4. The definition of school camping is educational activities organized by schools during semesters on campgrounds that effectively utilize the natural environment. It is part of the school curriculum that is designed with a focus on campers and cultivates the healthy physique, wholesome personality, democratic communal living, and understanding of nature of the students via direct experiences and democratic communal living. It is a laboratory for classroom subjects, a place of practice for life education, and a place of experience for outdoor recreation. 5. The school camping course designs implemented by Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson stressed teacher training and had sound basis in laws, organizational management, and teaching, which provide reference for the expansion and practice of the idea of school camping in Taiwan. 6. The education idea of the organizers and the parents and the actions of the advocates are crucial in the continuation of school camping. School camping in the U.S. encountered difficulties and arguments in terms of autonomous course design, funding, environmental preservation, teacher training, life transition, integration of courses into natural environments, and course evaluation. 8. Camping is a feasible way for outdoor education to be incorporated into the 12-Year Compulsory Education.

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顧曉芳（2014年4月11日）。營地教育破題中國教育改革-首屆中國國際營地教育研究會舉行。網易。取自： http://kids.163.com/14/0411/17/9PIKP7AJ00294LK 8.html
二、外文書目
American Camp Association, (2005a). Directions. Retrieved from http://www. acacamps.org/research/enhance/directions.pdf.
American Camp Association, (2005b). Innovations. Retrieved from http://www. acacamps.org/research/enhance/Innvoations.pdf.
American Camp Association, (2006). Inspirations. Retrieved from http://www. acacamps.org/research/enhance/Inspirations.pdf.
Bacon, R. Z. (1981). A comparative study of factors and practices in selected residential school camping programs in Michigan (Umpublished doctoral dissertation). Michigan State University, Michigan.
Blumberg, A. (1951). A historical study of the organized camping movement in New England, 1861-1950 (Unpublished master’s thesis). Springfield College, Massachusetts.
Carlson, J. A. (2002). Lloyd Burgess Sharp: An oral history of a career that shaped outdoor education (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, Texas.
Carlson, J. A. (2009). Never finished--just begun: a narrative history of LB Sharp. Edina, MN: Beaver’s Pond Press.
Carlson, J. A. (2011). Lloyd B. Sharp: Trailblazer in outdoor education. In T. E. Smith & C. E. Knapp (Eds.), Sourcebook of experiential education, key thinkers and their contributions (pp. 123-130). New York, NY: Routledge.
Carlson, R. E. (1980). Contributions of Julian W. Smith. In W. Hammerman, Fifty years of resident outdoor education, 1930-1980, its impact on American education (pp. 29-36). Martinsville, IN: American Camping Association.
Christman, J. H. (1957). The administration of a public elementary school camping and outdoor education program (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Buffalo, New York.
Clarke, J. M. (1951). Public school camping. Stanford, CA: Stanford University.
Cortell, M. L. (2011). Camping with Purpose. New York, NY: Goldstein. (Original work published 1950).
Cross, G. A. (1990). A social history of leisure since 1600. PA: Venture Publishing.
Dimock, H. S., & Hendry, C. E. (1929). Camping and character: a camp experiment in character education. New York, NY: Association Press.
Donaldson(1972). Julian W. Smith: An editorial. In Donaldson, G. W., & Goering, O. (1972). Perspectives on Outdoor Education: Readings (pp. 59-61). Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown Company.
Donaldson, G. W. (1952). School camping. NY: National Board of Young Men’s Christian Associations.
Donaldson, G. W., & Donaldson, L. E. (1958). Outdoor Education: a definition. Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, 29(5), 17-63.
Donaldson, G. W., & Goering, O. (1972). Perspectives on Outdoor Education. Dubuque, IA: WM. C. Brown Company Publishers.
Donaldson, G. W., & Donaldson, L. E. (1982, February). Whatever happened to School Camping? Camping Magazine, pp. 1-9.
Eells, E. (1986). History of organized camping: the first 100 years. Martinsville, IA: American Camping Association.
Elwell, A.F. (1925). The summer camp-a new factor in education (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Fine, L. J. (1987). Lloyd Burgess Sharp’s design criteria for organized residential camps and outdoor centers (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois.
Ford, P. M. (1981). Principles and Practices of Outdoor/Environmental Education. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
Ford, P. (1986). Outdoor Education: Definition and philosophy. Las Cruces, NM: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No. ED267941).
Hanna, P. R. (1951). Foreward. In J. Clarke, Public School Camping (pp. v-vi). Stanford, CA: Stanford University.
Hammerman, D. R. (1961). A historical analysis of the socio-cultural factors that influenced the development of camping education (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania.
Hickethier, K. (2008). Early TV: imagining and realizing television. In J. Bignell & A. Fickers (Eds.), A European television history (pp.55-78). MA: Blackwell.
Hill, F. E. (1935). The school in the camps: The educational program of the Civilian Conservation Corps. NY: American Association for Adult Education.
Jensen, C., & Burgess, R. C. (1952). An analysis of the school and community camping program in Highline, King County, Washington (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
Julian W. Smith Menorial Scholarship (n.d.). About Julian W. Smith. Retrieved from http://education.msu.edu/resources/students/scholarships/smith.asp
Kilpatrick, W. H. (1929). Foreward. In H. Dimock & C. Hendry (Eds.), Camping and Character: a camp experiment in character education (pp. vii-xi). NY: The General Board of The Young Men’s Christian Associations.
Kilpatrick, W. H. (1942, February). The role of camping in education today. The Camping Magazine, pp. 14-17.
Kirk, J. (1968). Outdoor Education: origin and purpose. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Service No. ED035493).
Kliebard, H. M. (1986). The struggle for the American curriculum 1893-1958. Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul plc.
Knapp, C. E. (2013). Foreword. In J. Quay, & J. Seaman, John Dewey and education outdoors: Making sense of the Educational Situation through more than a century of progressive reforms(pp. xiii-xv). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
Lawrence, D. (2008, June 13). Julian Warner Smith: Short Biography.The Annual Christian Society of Kinesiology and Leisure Studies, Seattle Pacific University.
Lewis, C. A. (1968). Factors influence the development of outdoor education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). New York University, New York.
Lieberman, J. (1931). Creative camping: a coeducational experiment in personality development and social living, being the record of six summers of the national experimental camp of Pioneer youth of America. New York: Association press.
Lu, C. C. (1993). General foci and content elements for a new scouting education curriculum of the Republic of China on Taiwan: A Delphi study. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Illionis, Urbana-Champaign, Illionis.
Lang, L. L.（1986）. An interdisciplinary curriculum model for outdoor education. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of North Dakota, Grand Gorks, North Dakota.
Macleod, D. (2004). Building character in the American Boy: the Boy Scouts, YMCA, and their Forerunners, 1870-1920. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin.
Manley, H., & Drury, M. F. (1952). Education through school camping. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
Mason, B. S. (1930). Camping and Education. New York, NY: The McCall Company.
Matthews, B. E. (1994, Sep./Oct.). Multicultural education: the role of organized camping. Camping Magazine, 28-31.
Meier, J. F., & Henderson, K. A. (2012). Camp Counseling: leadership and programming for the organized camp(8th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.
Melby, E. O. (1959). Introduction. In Donaldson, G. W., School Camping(pp. 5-9). NY: National Board of Young Men’s Christian Associations.
Miller, D. C. (1946). A study of the educational situation in the nature, woodcraft, and handicraft programs of 133 camps during the summer of 1945. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Nye, D. (1990). Electrifying America: Social meanings of a new technology, 1880-1940. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
Ozier, L. (2010, Sep./Oct.). Camp as educator: Lessons learned from history. Camping Magazine, 22–27.
Paris, L. (2008). Children's nature: the rise of the American summer camp. New York, NY: New York University Press.
Piercy, I. (1978). The extent of influence of Lloyd Burgess sharp as identified in the lives and professional careers of selected educators and youth leaders. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon.
Quay, J., & Seaman, J. (2013). John Dewey and education outdoors: Making sense of the Educational Situation through more than a century of progressive reforms. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
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Ramsing, R. (2007). Organized camping: A historical perspective. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 16(4), 751-754.
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Sharp, L. B. (1930). Education and the Summer Camp: An Experiment (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Columbia University, New York.
Sharp, L. B. (1933, May). Some educational considerations of a camp program. Progressive education, 10, 260-263
Sharp, L. B. (1934, February). The relationship of public schools to camping of the future. The camping magazine, 2-20.
Sharp, L. B. (1935a, March). The public school camp. The camping magazine, 6-29.
Sharp, L. B. (1935b, June). Catch up, Catch up! The camping magazine, 16-26.
Sharp, L. B. (1940, March). Giving camping back to the campers. The camping magazine. 5-22.
Sharp, L. B. (1942a, February). The role of camping in our American heritage. The camping magazine, 33-57.
Sharp, L. B. (1942b, March). Facing up to today’s problems. The camping magazine, 5-19.
Sharp, L. B. (1947a, April). Camping and outdoor education. The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 31(146), 32-38. Doi: 10.1177/019263654703114605
Sharp, L. B. (1947b, May). Basic considerations in outdoor and camping education. Bulletin of the national association of secondary school principals. 31(147), 43-47. Doi: 10.1177/019263654703114707
Sharp L. B., & DeAlton Partridge E., (1947, May). Some historical backgrounds of camping, The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 31(147), 15-20. Doi: 10.1177/019263654703114703
Sharp, L. B. (1948). Why outdoor and camping education? Journal of Educational Sociology, 21(5), 313-318.
Sharp, L. P. (1957). Introduction. In J. W. Smith, Outdoor education for American youth . Washington, DC: AAHPER.
Sharp, (1959). L. P. Introduction. In L. Goodrich, Decentralized camping (pp. vill-villl). New York, NY: National Board of Young Men’s Christian Associations.
Smith, J. W. (1945). School Camping. Michigan High School Athletic Association Bulletin, August, XXII, pp. 46-47.
Smith, J. W. (1946). Education goes camping. The Journal of Health and Physical Education, 17(10), 590-632.
Smith, J. W. (1950). The Michigan Story of Camping and Outdoor Education. Journal of Educational Sociology, 23(9), 508-515.
Smith, J. W. (1951). Community School Camping. Journal of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 22(6), 4-6.
Smith, J. W. (1952). Foreword. In H. Manley, & M. F. Drury, Education through school camping (pp. 7-8). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
Smith, J. W. (1955). Adventure in Outdoor Education. Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, 26(5), 8-18. Doi: 10.1080/00221473.1955.10628949
Smith, J. W. (1956). The Outdoor Education Project's First Year. Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, 27(7), 14-15.
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Smith, J. W. (1960). The Scope of Outdoor Education. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School Principals, 44(256), 157-9. (ED023490)
Smith, J. W. (1963a). After Eight Years: report of the outdoor education project. Journal of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, 34(3), 36-37.
Smith, J. W., Carlson, R. E., & Donaldson, G.W. (1963b). Outdoor education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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Smith, M. B. (2002). And they say we'll have some fun when it stops raining: a history of summer camp in America (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Indiana University, Indiana.
Spigel, L. (1992a). Installing the television set: popular discourses on television and domestic space, 1948-1955. In L. Spigel & D. Mann (Eds.), Private screening: television and the female consumer (pp. 3-38). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota .
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Tozer, S. E., Senese, G. B., & Violas, P. C. (1995). School and society: historical and contemporary perspectives. New York: McGraw-Hill.
The board of education of the City of New York(1948). Extending Education through Camping. New York, NY: Life Camps.`
Thurston, L. M. (n.d.). Community School Camping. Lansing, Michigan: Superintendent of Public Instruction.
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