在生物教科書中，附圖佔著很重要的一部分。本研究嘗試探討現行高中生物教科書中附圖的類型及學生對生物課本圖形所持有的看法。另外，亦探討影響學生讀圖的因素，是否受閱讀習慣、直覺法則、箭頭符號及景深的不同所影響。
生物課本附圖之分析中發現，在現行高中三種生物課本中，附圖比例甚高，平均每頁有1.18張的圖形。而圖形的種類依Levin的分類方式，高一基礎生物表徵類圖片居多(67%)，高二生命科學及高三生物則解釋性圖形增多(平均約50%)，組織類圖形亦比基礎生物所佔比例高，移轉類圖形在各冊闕如。
本研究以北市及高市各兩個高二班級學生為問卷調查研究對象，他們對生物課本圖片支持學習多持肯定看法，尤其是自然類組學生更重視圖形對生物學習的影響。而在了解圖形意義的方式，多數學生是利用圖形旁邊的文字註解。
直覺法則的表現研究中，多數高二學生在生物個體大小及其細胞大小間，無More A--More B的直覺偏差。在對不同形狀細菌的比較，有30%學生會依著體積相等所以表面積的理由而作出類似Same A--Same B直覺誤判。而另有30%的學生則因圖形的感覺，而有類似直覺法則中More A--More B的表現。
研究發現，課本中解釋類圖形及組織類圖形常運用箭頭符號來引導學生讀圖，但若不慎使用，亦會造成學生有另有想法。例如，動態感的增強、量大小的暗示及圖形元件間的層疊影響。
在景深探討方面，實驗結果支持Reid的發現，亦即前景元件較易被學生發現及記憶，中景元件次之，而後景元件則最易被忽略及遺忘。
根據本研究之發現與心得，本研究建議教師宜有效利用各類圖形的認知功能特性，協助學生學習，並且營造學習環境，讓學生自行作圖，以強化學生解釋圖形及運用圖形的能力。教科書圖片編輯者亦應考量學生對圖形可能產生的另有想法，而謹慎運用圖形符號。對於景深記憶之效應，可考量將圖形中欲強調的重點置於圖形前景。
至於未來研究方向，可考慮二維圖示的下中上區是否有類似三維圖形的前中後景的景深記憶效應之研究，有關此類圖形效益之研究，值得日後研究者深入探討之。

Book illustrations play an important role in the textbooks of Biology. This study aims to identify the types of illustrations appearing in the biology textbooks, as well as find out students’ opinions toward these illustrations. Besides, the study also investigates whether students’ comprehension of the illustrations is influenced by such factors as reading habits, the intuitive rules and the difference in the depth of field.
After analyzing the occurrence of illustrations in the three currently available editions of high school biology textbooks, it is found that there is a high frequency, with 1.18 pieces each page on average. As for the types of illustrations, according to Levin’s classification, it is observed that there are representational illustrations account for 67% of the occurrence in the textbooks for the first-year students, while interpretational illustrations increase to 50% in second-year and third-year books. Organizational illustrations also appear more often in the second-year and third-year books than in the first-year ones. However no transformational illustrations are observed in these textbooks.
The study is based on the result of the questionnaire given to four classes of high school students in their second year two classes from Kaohsiung and two from Taipei. Most of them agree that the illustrations in the biology textbooks help learning. And students who take more scientific courses put more emphasis on learning by illustrations. Most students comprehend the illustrations by reading the accompanied explanatory words.
As to the expression of the intuitive rules, most students do not show the “More A—More B” intuition when judging the relationship between the size of a given creature and the size of its cell. However, when the judgment involves bacteria of different shapes, 30% of the students derive problematic conclusion by following the “Same A—Same B” intuitive rule, in this case, “Same volume—Same surface area.” And another 30% demonstrate a “More A—More B” intuition based on the impression they get from the illustration.
In interpretational and organizational illustrations arrow signs are usually used the guide students in comprehension. However, incautious use of them may result in students’ alternative thinking, such as the increase of the sense of dynamics, the implication of the amount and the misinterpretation of the relationship among the illustrated items.
The investigation into depth of field supports Reid’s finding. That is, the foreground items are easier for students to see and remember, while background items tend to be ignored and forgotten, mid-ground items stand in between.
Based on the findings in the study, teachers are suggested to make the best use of the cognitive function of each illustration type to facilitate students’ learning. Teachers can also create a learning environment in which students make graphs for themselves, so that they are more able to interpret or make use of the graphs. The illustration editors of textbooks showed also take students’ possible alternative thinking into consideration, and be cautious with the use if signs or symbols. As to effects of depth of field on memory, it is plausible to place the items to be emphasized at the foreground.
For further research, the effect of zone of field on memory in two-dimensioned picture seems to be a topic worth studying. Do the upper, middle and lower part of a two-dimensioned picture present the same memory effect on students as the foreground, mid-ground, and the background in a three-dimensioned picture? Future study like this hopefully can generate more insight on “how to learn better.”

Anderson, J. R. (1978). Arguments concerning representations for mental imagery. Psychological Review, 85(4), .249-277
Brody, P. J. (1981). Research on Pictorial in Instructional Texts: The Need for a Broadened Perspective. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29, 93-100
Brody, P. J., & Legenza, A. (1980). Can Pictorial Attributes Serve Mathemagenic Functions? Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 28, 25-29
Carrick, T. (1977). A comparison of recently published biology textbooks for examinations. Journal of Biological Education, 11(3), 163-173
Cleveland, W. S. & McGill, R. (1985). Graphical Perception and Graphical Methods for Analyzing Scientific Data. Science, 229, 828-833
Conezio, J., Standing, L., & Haber, R. N. (1970). Perception and memory for picture: Single-trial learning of 2500 visual stimuli. Psychonomic science, 19, 73-74
Constable, H., Campbell, B., & Brown, R. (1988). Sectional Drawings from Science Textbooks: an Experimental Investigation into Pupils’ Understanding. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 89-102
Cronbach, L., & Snow, R. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods. New York: Irvington.
Farah, M. J. (1988). Knowledge From Text and Pictures: A Neuropsychological Perspective. N. H. Mandl & J. R. Levin (Eds.), Knowledge Acquisition from Text and Pictures. (p.59-71) New York: North Holland.
Feschbein, E. (1987). Intuition in Science and Mathematics: an Educational Approach. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel.
Franken, R. E., & Davis, J. (1975). Predicting memory for pictures from ranking of interestingness, pleasingness, complexity, figure-ground, and clarity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 38, 243-247
Holiday, W. G. (1976). Teaching verbal chains using flow diagrams and texts. AV Communication Review, 24, 63-78
Holiday, W. G., Brunner, L. L., & Donais, E. L. (1977). Differential cognitive and affective responses to diagrams in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 14, 129-138
Kieras, D. (1978). Beyond picrures and words : alternative information-processing models for imagery effects in verbal memory, Psychological Bulletin, 85(3), 532-554
Kiymenko, V., & Weisstein, N. (1986). Spatial frequency difference can determine figure-ground organization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 12, 324-330
Koran, M. L. & Koran, Jr., J. J. (1980). Interaction of learner characteristics with pictorial adjuncts in learning from science text. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 17(5), 477-482
Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987). Why a Diagrams is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words. Cognitive Science, 11, 65-99
Levie , W. H., & Lentz, R. (1982). Effects of Text Illustrations : A review of Research. Educational Communication and Technology, 30(4), 195-232
Levin, J. R. (1981). On the functions of pictures in prose. In F. J. Pirozzolo & M. C. Wittrock (Eds.), Neurophysiological and cognitive processes in reading. New York: Academic Press.
Levin, J. R. (1982). Picture as prose-learning devices. In A. Flemmer & W. Kintsch (Eds.), Discourse processing. (p.412-444) New York: North Holland.
Levin, J. R. (1983). Pictorial strategies for school learning: Practical illustrations. In M. Pressley & J. R. Levin (Eds.) Cognitive strategy research: Educational applications (p.213-237) New York: Springer-Verlag.
Levin, J. R. (1989). A Transfer-Appropriate-Processing Perspective of Pictures in Prose. In H. Mandl & J. R. Levin (Eds.), Knowledge Acquisition from Text and Pictures. (p.83-100) New York: North Holland.
Levin, J. R., Anglin, G. J., & Carney, R. N. (1987). On Empirically Validating Functions of Pictures in Prose. In D. M. Willows & H. A. Houghton(Eds.), The Psychology of Illustrations (p.51-85) New York: Springer-Verlag.
Livne, T. (1996). Examination of high school students’ difficulties in understanding the change in surface area, volume and surface area/volume ratio with the change in size and/or shape of a body. Unpublished master’s thesis, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. (In Herbrew)
Lord, T. R. (1978). The influence of pictorial illustrations with written text and previous achievement on the reading comprehension of fourth grade science students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 15(5), 401-405
Mader, S. S. (1991). Inquiry into life. (Sixth Education) (p.750-755) Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Mayer, R. E. (1993). Commentary Comprehension of Graphics in Texts: An overview. Learning and Instruction, 3, 239-245
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When Is an Illustration Worth Ten Thousand Words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 715-726.
Mayer, R. E., & Sim, V. K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extension of a Dual-Coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(3), 389-401
Mayer, R. E., Dyck, J. L., & Cook, L. K. (1984). Techniques that help readers build mental models from scientific text: Definitions, pretraining and signaling. Journal of Educational Psychplogy, 76, 1089-1105
Merrill, P.F., & Bunderson, C.V. (1981). Preliminary guidelines for employing graphics in instruction. Journal of Instructional Development, 4(4), 2-9
Molitor, S., Ballstaedt, S. P., & Mandl, H. (1989). Problems in Knowledge Acquisition from Text and Pictures. In H. Mandl & J. R. Levin(Eds.), Knowledge Acquisition from Text and Pictures. (p.3-35) New York: North Holland.
Oh, C. Y. (1968). A study of the development of children’s ability to perceive depth in static two dimensional pictures. Ph.D. dissertation. Indiana University.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations: A dual Coding Approach .(Oxford Psychology Series No.9) New York: Oxford University.
Preece, J., & Janvier, C. (1992). A study of interpretation of trends in multiple curve graphs of ecological situation. School Science and Mathematics, 92(6), 299-306
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1981). The imagery debate : analogue media versus tacit knowledge. Psychological Review, 88(1), 16-45
Reid , D. J. (1984). The picture superiority effect and biological education. Journal of Biological Education, 18(1), 29-36
Reid, D. J. (1990a). The role of pictures in learning biology: Part 2, picture-text processing. Journal of Biology Education, 24(4), 251-258
Reid, D. J. (1990b). The role of pictures in learning biology: Part 1, perception and observation，Journal of Biology Education, 24(3), 161-172.
Reid, D. J., & Broadbridge, J. (1988). The influence of Depth of Field and Colour Identification on Children’s Perceptions of Danger Points in a Picture. British Educational Research Journal, 14(3), 321-331
Reid, D. J., & Miller, G. J. (1980). Pupil's perception of biological pictures and its implications for readability studies of biology textbooks. Journal of Biological Education, 14(1), 59-69
Riber, L. P. (1995). A historical review of visualization in human cognition. ETR & D, 43(1), 45-56
Royal, J. M. & Cable, G. W. (1976). Illustrations, Analogies, and Facilitative Transfer in Prose Learning. Journal of Educational Psychology. 88(2), 205-209
Shah, P., & Hoeffner, J. (under review). Review of Graph Comprehension Research: Implications for Instruction. Educational Psychology Review: Special issue on Text Adjuncts
Sinha, D. & Shukla, P. (1974). Deprivation and Development of Skill for Pictorial Depth Perception. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5(4), 434-450
Stavy, R. & Triosh, D. (1996a). Intuitive rules in science and mathematics: the case of “more of A- more of B”. International Journal of Science, 18(6), 653-667
Stavy, R. & Triosh, D. (1996b). Intuitive rules in science and mathematics: the case of “Everything can be divided by two”. International Journal of Science, 18(6), 669-683
Stavy, R. & Triosh, D. (1999). The Intuitive Rules Theory and Inservice Teacher Education. In Fou-Lai Lin (Ed), Proceedings of the 1999 International Conference on Mathematics Teacher Education. Department of Mathematics, National Taiwan Normal University: Taipei Taiwan, 205-225
Stavy, R. & Triosh, D. (2000). How Students (Mis-)Understand Science and Mathematics：Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press, 42-47
Stavy, R., Tirosh, D., Tsamir, P., & Ronen, H. (1996). The Role of Intuitive Rules in Science and Mathematics Education. Unpublished thesis. School of Education, Tel-Aviv University, Israle.
Steine, G. (1999). (Translated by Joseph A. Smith) Learning from an Illustrated Text: The Construction of Mental Models. Learning：Nineteen Scenarios From Everyday Life. (P.167-197) Cambridge University Press.
Tufte, R. E. (1983). Drawings and Diagrams. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. (P.15-56) Cheshire, Conn. : Graphic Press.
Underwood (1963). Stimulus selection in verbal learning. In C. Cofer & B. Musgrave (Eds.), Verbal behavior and learning, problems and processes (P.33-48). New York:McGraw-Hill.
Winn, W. (1980). The effect of block-word diagrams on the structuring of science concepts as a function of general ability. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 18, 23-32
Winn, W. (1989). The Design and Use of Instructional Graphics. In H. Mandl & J. R. Levin(Eds.), Knowledge Acquisition from Text and Pictures (p.125-144). New York: North Holland.
Winn, W. (1993a). Perception Principals. In M. Fleming & W. H. Levie (Eds.) Instructional message design (2nd ed.)( P.55-126) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology.
Winn, W. (1993b). An account of how readers search for information in diagrams. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 162-185
Wu, Hsin-Kai (2002). Middle School Development of Inscriptional Practices in Inquiry-Bases Science classrooms. A dissertation submitted in practical fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (School of Education) in the University of Michigan.
王文科(1999)：教育研究法(五版)，臺北五南圖書出版公司，142-144
吳昭容(1990)：圖示對國小學童解數學應用題之影響，國立臺灣大學心理學研究所論文
李茂興等譯(2000)：心理學：適應環境的心靈(Psychology—The Adaptive Mind, James S. Nairne)，弘智出版社，226-237
林菁(1994)：圖像複雜度與兒童認知學習，嘉義師院學報，171-208
林麗娟(1996)：多媒體電腦圖像設計與視覺記憶的關係。教學科技與媒體，28，3-12
林麗娟(1999)：網頁圖像設計與個別差異之考量。視聽教育，40卷第6期，18-27
施志宜(1998)：高低後設認知能力國三學生閱讀地球科學說明文之差異，國立臺灣師範大學科學教育所碩士論文
施河主編(2001)：高中生物(上)，南一書局
施河主編(2002)：高中生命科學(下)，南一書局
施河主編(2002)：高中生命科學(上)，南一書局
施河主編(2002)：高中生物(下)，南一書局
施河主編(2002)：高中基礎生物，南一書局
國立臺灣師範大學科學教育中心主編(1995)：高級中學基礎生物全一冊，第12版，台北，國立編譯館
國立編譯館(1997)：國民中學生物上冊，台北，國立編譯館
張欣怡(1997)：地球科學不同課文表徵教材對學習表現之研究，國立臺灣師範大學科學教育所碩士論文
許良榮(1996)：圖形與科學課文學習關係的探討，教育研究資訊，4(4)，121-131。
許朝貴、耿正屏(1995)：國一學生理解人體血液循環路徑的困難分析。彰師科學教育，1-25
單文經(1996)：插圖的種類與設計原則，教學科技與媒體，28期，30-37
湯清二(1991)：我國學生自然科概念發展與診斷教學之研究：生物細胞概念發展(一)。彰化師範大學學報，第三期，489-516
湯清二(1993)：我國學生生物細胞概念發展研究—迷思概念之晤談與概念圖。彰化師範大學學報，第四期，141-170
賀華淦(1999)：心理學，國家出版社，300-301
黃希庭等譯(1992)：認知心理學，Robert L. Solso原著，臺北五南圖書出版公司，66
楊牧貞(1997)：圖形表徵與文字表徵之腦側化。應用心理學報，第6輯，119-135
楊冠政主編(2001)：高中生命科學(下)，龍騰圖書公司
楊冠政主編(2002)：高中生命科學(上)，龍騰圖書公司
楊冠政主編(2002)：高中生物(下)，龍騰圖書公司
楊冠政主編(2002)：高中生物(上)，龍騰圖書公司
楊冠政主編(2002)：高中基礎生物，龍騰圖書公司
葉素玲(1999)：色彩在空間視覺所扮演的角色，視覺與認知，李江山等著，遠流出版公司，227-258
葉素玲(1999)：視覺空間注意力，視覺與認知，李江山等著，遠流出版公司，292-323
鄭湧涇等著(2001)：高中生命科學(下)，康熙圖書公司
鄭湧涇等著(2001)：高中生物(下)，康熙圖書公司
鄭湧涇等著(2002)：高中生命科學(上)，康熙圖書公司
鄭湧涇等著(2002)：高中生物(上)，康熙圖書公司
鄭湧涇等著(2002)：高中基礎生物，康熙圖書公司
謝展文(2000)：直覺法則對於數學及科學的影響—以國小四、五、六年級學生為對象。國立臺灣師範大學科學教育所碩士論文
謝琇玲(1996)：插圖對學生閱讀學習的影響研究。高雄工學院學報，3期，305-315。
藍雅齡(1998)：讀圖訓練對國二學生理解地球科學圖形之影響。國立臺灣師範大學科學教育所碩士論文
藍嘉淑(2000)：圖片在國中生物教學的角度及其對學生圖片理解之影響，高雄師範大學科學教育所碩士論文
羅綸新、姚伊美(1996)：圖形效益與互動性多媒體教學，視聽教育月刊，37卷第5期，25-29