擬傷是部分鳥類的護幼行為。目前關於繁殖過程與護幼行為的展現有兩種假說：(1)隨著親鳥投資程度而增加(2)於雛鳥較容易受天敵威脅的時期展現。本研究擬針對半早熟型的鳥類南亞夜鷹(Caprimulgus affinis)，分別在河床區(有遮蔽)及建物區(無遮蔽)頂樓，檢視不同年齡的雌夜鷹展現擬傷的時機、頻度以其與掠食者間的距離。自2008到2012年間，於河床區與建物區各記錄69與54個成功繁殖巢(雛鳥達到17日齡)。在河床區，雌鳥於雛鳥第5日齡時開始展現擬傷行為，峰期集中在8-11日(加權平均後得到雌鳥於雛鳥9.0日齡時有較多的擬傷行為展現)。在建物區，雌鳥則於雛鳥4日齡時展現擬傷行為，峰期集中在雛鳥6-9日齡(加權平均後得到雌鳥於雛鳥7.9日齡時有較多的擬傷行為展現)。本研究顯示，不論哪種環境，雌鳥擬傷行為展現的時機與雛鳥容易移動日齡有明顯關聯(河床區：rs=0.921，建物區：rs= 0.932)；在無遮蔽的條件下，雌鳥會提早進行擬傷，且延長擬傷天數；年齡越大的雌鳥，展現擬傷的次數要高於年紀較輕的。結果顯示建物區與河床區雌鳥的擬傷時機有所不同，推測是因為環境遮蔽度造成子代受天敵威脅程度有所差異造成的。

Injury Feigning, is a kind of bird behaviors of nest defenses. There is two hypothesis referring optimal timing of nest defense: (1) Brood value hypothesis. (2) Vulnerability hypothesis. In this study, I focus on demonstrating the difference of the injury feigning behaviors which take by semi-precocial Savanna Nightjars (Caprimulgus affinis) during different ages, to test the timing, frequency, and settling distance. The study sites include river banks (with cover) and building rooftops (without cover). During 2008-2012, we recorded 54 nests at building rooftops and 69 at river banks (breeding success age: 17 days old). At building rooftops, female began to display injury feigning behaviors when nestlings were 4 days old. And the frequency of this behaviors reached a peak at 6-9 days old (weighted average:7.9 days old). At river banks, female began to display injury feigning behaviors when nestlings were 5 day old. And the frequency of this behaviors reached a peak at 8-11 days old (weighted average:9.0 days old). In both environments, the timing of injury feigning is highly related to the days of nestlings usually moved(river banks：rs=0.921, building rooftops：rs= 0.932). Besides, females displayed injury feigning behaviors early and longer at the uncover site. The older females displayed more injury feigning than the youngers at the uncover surroundings. The difference of timing and sites which females displayed injury feigning behaviors, may be refered to the environment cover provides different protection on nestlings.

Andersson, M., Wiklund, C. G. & Rundgren, H. 1980. Parental defence of offspring: A model and an example. Animal Behavior 28:536-542.
Barash, D. P. 1975. Evolutionary Aspects of Parental Behavior - Distraction Behavior of Alpine Accentor. Wilson Bulletin 87:367-373.
Biermann, G. C. & Robertson, R. J. 1981. An increase in parental investment during the breeding season. Animal Behaviour 29:487-489.
Brunton, D. H. 1986. Fatal Antipredator Behavior of a Killdeer. The Wilson Bulletin 98:605-607.
Brunton, D. H. 1987. Reproductive effort of male and female Killdeer( Charadrius vociferus). PhD dissertation University Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Brunton, D. H.1990. The effects of nesting stage, sex, and type of predator on parental defense by killdeer(Charadrius vociferous): testing models of avian parental defense. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 26:181-190.
Byrkjedal, I. 1987. Antipredator Behavior and Breeding Success in Greater Golden-Plover and Eurasian Dotterel. Condor 89:40-47.
Cantar, R. V. & Montgomerie, R. D. 1985. The Influence of Weather on Incubation Scheduling of the White-Rumped Sandpiper (Calidris fuscicollis): A Uniparental Incubator in a Cold Environment. Behaviour 95:261-289.
Čapek, M., Požgayová, M., Procházka, P. & Honza, M. 2010. Repeated Presentations of the Common Cuckoo Increase Nest Defense by the Eurasian Reed Warbler but Do Not Induce It to Make Recognition Errors. The Condor 112:763-769.
Cleere, N. 2010. Nightjars of the world. Wildguides Ltd., Old Basing, Hampshire UK. p.268.
Conover, M. R. 1987. Acquisition of Predator Information by Active and Passive Mobbers in Ring-Billed Gull Colonies. Behaviour 102:41-57.
Curio, E. 1975. The functional organization of anti-predator behaviour in the pied flycatcher: A study of avian visual perception. Animal Behaviour 23, Part 1:1-115.
Davies, N. B., J. R. Madden, & Butchart S. H. M. 2004. Learning fine-tunes a specific response of nestlings to the parental alarm calls of their own species. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 271:2297-2304.
East, M. 1981. Alarm Calling and Parental Investment in the Robin Erithacus Rubecula. Ibis 123:223-230.
Evans, C. S., Evans, L. & Marler, P. 1993. On the meaning of alarm calls: Functional reference in an avian vocal system. Animal Behaviour 46:23-38.
Gargallo, G. 1994. Flight Feather Moult in the Red-Necked Nightjar Caprimulgus ruficollis. Journal of Avian Biology 25:119-124.
Gochfeld, M. 1984. Antipredator behavior: aggressive and distraction displays of shorebirds. Pp. 289-377 in Behavior of marine animals. Vol. 5 (J. Burger and B. L. Olla, eds.). Plenum Press, New York, New York
Gottfried, B. M. 1979. Anti-predator aggression in birds nesting in old field habitats: an experimental analysis. Condor 81: 251-257.
Gramza, A. 1967. Responses of brooding nighthawks to a disturbance stimulus. Auk 84:72-86.
Graul, W. D. 1974. Vocalizations of the Mountain Plover. The Wilson Bulletin 86:221-229.
Greig-Smith, P. W. 1980. Parental investment in nest defence by stonechats (Saxicola torquata). Animal Behaviour 28:604-619.
Galeotti, P., Tavecchia, G. & Bonetti, A. 2000. Parental defence in Long-eared Owls Asio otus: effects of breeding stage, parent sex and human persecution. Journal of Avian Biology 31:431-440.
Halupka, K. & Halupka, L. 1997. The influence of reproductive season stage on nest defence by meadow pipits (Anthus pratensis). Ethology Ecology & Evolution 9:89-98.
Harvey, P. H. & Greenwood, P. J. 1978. Antipredator defence strategies: some evolutionary problems. In: Behavioural Ecology, an Evolutionary Approach (Ed. by J. R. Krebs & N. B. Davies). Oxford: Blackwell.
Hogstad, O. 1993. Nest defence and physical condition in Fieldfare Turdus pilaris. Journal of Ornithology 134:25-33.
Holcomb, L. C. 1972. Traill's Flycatcher breeding biology. Nebraska Bird Review 40:50-68.
Honza, M., Procházka, P., Šicha, V. & Požgayová, M. 2010. Nest defence in a cuckoo host: great reed warblers risk themselves equally for their own and parasitic chicks. Behaviour 147:741-756.
Hudson, P. J.& Newborn, D. 1990. Brood defence in a precocial species: variations in the distraction displays of red grouse, Lagopus lagopus scoticus. Animal Behaviour 40:254-261.
Hustler, K. and Mitchell, B. 1997. The first breeding record and further comments on the status of the Swamp Nightjar in Zimbabwe. Honeyguide 43:147-152.
Ingels, J., Ribot, J.-H. & Jong, B. H. J. d. 1984. Vulnerability of Eggs and Young of the Blackish Nightjar (Caprimulgus nigrescens) in Suriname. The Auk 101:388-391.
Knight, R. L. & Temple S. A. 1986. Nest defence in the American goldfinch. Animal Behaviour 34:887-897.
Lack, D. L. 1932. Some Breeding-habits of the European Nightjar. Ibis 74:266-284.
Larson, S. 1960. On the influence of the Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) on the distribution of Arctic birds. Oikos 11:277-305.
Malickienė, D. & Budrys, R. R. 2002. Changes in Colony Defence Pattern during the Breeding Cycle of the Black-Headed Gull (Larus Ridibundus L.): The Importance of Parameters Characterising Defensive Behaviour. Acta Zoologica Lituanica 12:144-150.
Martin, K. & Horn, A. G. 1993. Offspring Defense by Male and Female Willow Ptarmigan Lagopus lagopus. Ornis Scandinavica 24:261-266.
Martin, T. E. 1992. Interaction of nest predation and food limitation in reproductive strategies, pp. 163-197. In: Power D.M., Edit. Current ornithology, Vol. 9. New York and London:Plenum Press.
MacLean, I. G., Smith, J. N. M. & Stewart, K. G. 1986. Mobbing Behaviour, Nest Exposure, and Breeding Success in the American Robin. Behaviour 96:171-186.
Montgomerie, R. D. and Weatherhead, P. J. 1988. Risks and Rewards of Nest Defense by Parent Birds. Quarterly Review of Biology 63:167-187.
Myers, J. P. 1978. One deleterious effect of mobbing in the Southern Lapwing (Vanellus chilensis). Auk 95:419.
Neudorf, D. L. & Sealy S. G. 1992. Reactions of Four Passerine Species to Threats of Predation and Cowbird Parasitism: Enemy Recognition or Generalized Responses? Behaviour 123:84-105.
Nuechterlein, G. L. 1988. Parent-Young Vocal Communication in Western Grebes. The Condor 90:632-636.
Onnebrink, H. & Curio, E. 1991. Brood Defense and Age of Young: A Test of the Vulnerability Hypothesis. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 29:61-68.
Patterson, T. L., Petrinovich, L. & James, D. K. 1980. Reproductive value and appropriateness of response to predators by White-Crowned Sparrows. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 7:227-231.
Palestis, B. G. 2005. Nesting Stage and Nest Defense by Common Terns. Waterbirds 28:87-94.
Pavel, V. & Bureš, S. 2001. Offspring age and nest defence: test of the feedback hypothesis in the meadow pipit. Animal Behaviour 61:297-303.
Pavel, V., Bureš, S. Weidinger, K. & Kovařík, P. 2000. Distraction Displays in Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis) Females in Central and Northern Europe. Ethology 106:1007-1019.
Pedersen, H. C. & Steen J. B. 1985. Parental Care and Chick Production in a Fluctuating Population of Willow Ptarmigan. Ornis Scandinavica 16:270-276.
Perrins, C.M. 1965. Population fluctuations and clutch-size in the great tit, Parus major. J Anim Ecol 34:601-647
Platzen, D. & Magrath R. D. 2004. Parental alarm calls suppress nestling vocalization. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 271:1271-1276.
Pugesek, B. H. 1983. The relationship between parental age and reproductive effort in the California Gull (Larus californicus ). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 13:161-171.
Ratcliffe, L. M. 1974. Nest defence behavior in the lesser snow goose. B. Sc. thesis, Queen's University, Kingston.
Raye, S. S. C. & Burger, J. 1979. Behavioral Determinants of Nestling Success of Snowy Egrets (Leucophoyx thula). American Midland Naturalist 102:76-85
Redondo, T. 1989. Avian Nest Defence: Theoretical Models and Evidence. Behaviour 111:161-195.
Regelmann, K. & Curio, E. 1983. Determinants of brood defence in the great tit Parus major L. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol 13:131-145.
Redondo, T. & Carranza, J. 1989. Offspring reproductive value and nest defense in the magpie (Pica pica). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25:369-378.
Siegel-Causey, D. & Hunt G. L. Jr. 1981. Colonial defense behavior in double crested and pelagic cormorants. Auk 98:522-531.
Simmons, K. E. L. 1985. Distraction behaviour, pp. 144-145. In: Campbell B. & Lack E., Edits. A dictionary of birds. Calton: T & AD Poyser.
Slagsvold, T. 1982. Mobbing: Goshawk attacking stuffed eagle owl. Br. Birds 75:330-333.
Smith, P. & Wilson, S. 2010. Intraseasonal patterns in shorebird nest survival are related to nest age and defence behaviour. Oecologia 163:613-624.
Sordahl, T. A. 1990. The Risks of Avian Mobbing and Distraction Behavior: An Anecdotal Review. The Wilson Bulletin 102:349-352.
Steyn, P. 1971. Notes on the breeding biology of the freckled nightjar. Ostrich 42:179-188.
Tomkins, I. R. 1942. The "Injury-Feigning" Behavior of the Florida Nighthawk. The Wilson Bulletin 54:43-49.
Trivers, R. L. 1972. Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Campbell B (ed) Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871-1971. Aldine Press, Chicago:pp 136-179.
Wallin, K. 1987. Defence as Parental Care in Tawny Owls (Strix aluco). Behaviour 102:213-230.
Walters, J. R. 1982. Parental behavior in Lapwings(Charadriidae) and its relationship with offspring sizes and mating systems. Evolution 36:1030-1040.
Water resources agency. 2010. Statistic of water resources.
Westneat, D. F. 1989. Intensity of nest defence in indigo buntings increases with stage and not number of visits. Auk 106:747-749.
Wiklund, C. G. 1990. Offspring protection by merlin Falco columbarius females; the importance of brood size and expected offspring survival for defense of young. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 26:217-223.
Wiklund, C. G. & Stigh J. 1983. Nest Defence and Evolution of Reversed Sexual Size Dimorphism in Snowy Owls Nyctea scandiaca. Ornis Scandinavica 14:58-62.
Yeats, G. K. 1947. Birds Haunts in Southern England. London: Faber & Faber.
王穎。2009。台灣夜鷹生態研究計畫。行政院農業委員會林務局委託研究系列97-08-8-01 號。