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研究生： 理克
Collart, Aymeric
論文名稱： 語言、大腦與時間的相遇：漢語的觀點
Bridging Time in Language and in the Brain: Insights from Mandarin Chinese
指導教授： 詹曉蕙
Chan, Shiao-Hui
齊莉莎
Zeitoun, Elizabeth
口試委員： 林若望
Lin, Jo-wang
李佳霖
Lee, Chia-Lin
陳振宇
Chen, Jenn-Yeu
李臻儀
Li, Jen-I
詹曉蕙
Chan, Shiao-hui
齊莉莎
Zeitoun, Elizabeth
口試日期： 2022/01/13
學位類別： 博士
Doctor
系所名稱： 英語學系
Department of English
論文出版年： 2022
畢業學年度： 110
語文別： 英文
論文頁數： 505
中文關鍵詞： 漢語 、構詞句法學 、時間觀念 、時貌 、神經語言學 、事件相關電位 、類型神經語言學
英文關鍵詞： Mandarin, morphosyntax, time, aspect, neurolinguistics, ERP, neurotypology
研究方法: 實驗設計法 、 構詞句法學分析法
DOI URL： http://doi.org/10.6345/NTNU202200490
論文種類： 學術論文
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    • 時間被視為人類認知中至關重要的概念，時間標記則因語言而異。不過，大腦處理時間標記仍然不清楚。現今絕大多數的相關研究皆是針對印歐語系語言中的「時態」(tense)標記。本論文將要探討漢語中的「了」及「過」兩個「時貌」(grammatical aspect)標記和過去時間的關係，以及大腦如何處理「了」及「過」之時間標記。首先，本論文針對漢語中存在已久的「了」及「過」是否具有「時態」成分之辯論提供反證，並且主張「了」及「過」被用於表示過去時間是因為其時貌特徵。本論文將兩者時貌特徵與表示過去時間的關係分析成對應到不同語法的意義、功能：「了」對應到「時間先後關係」的認知功能，而「過」對應到「時間定位」的認知功能。接著，本論文透過三個採用事件相關電位(event-related potential，稱ERP)技術的實驗測試/探討以上的分析。相關結果顯現了兩種質變上不同的效果進而支持上述分析：「了」在時間標記上的大腦處理誘發前腦及早期之負極性波幅(early frontal negativity)，而「過」則是誘發晚期之正極性波幅(P600)，此外，「了」及「過」在時間標記上的大腦處理方式與「了」及「過」在時貌上(非時間上)不同。最後，為使以上兩種大腦處理方式有廣義的且跨語言的功能解釋，本論文將漢語的時貌標記在時間上的大腦處理與印歐語系的時態標記在時間上的大腦處理方式做相互對比：前腦及早期之負極性波幅(early frontal negativity)被視為反映「時間先後關係」的認知功能，晚期之正極性波幅(P600) 被視為反映「時間定位」的認知功能。總而言之，本論文採用以上分析及證據提供大腦如何處理時間標記之類型神經語言學模式。

    Time, a crucial concept in human cognition, is differently encoded from one language to another. Yet, how time in language is processed in the brain remains unclear, as such an investigation was mainly conducted based on tense marking in Indo-European languages. The aim of this dissertation is to investigate how past time is expressed in Mandarin with the grammatical aspect markers LE and GUO, as well as how the expression of past time with LE and GUO is processed in the brain. First, this dissertation takes side in the long-standing debate in the linguistic literature concerning whether LE and GUO encode tense in addition to aspect information. Pieces of evidence are brought against the tense analysis of LE and GUO. It is further argued that LE and GUO are used to express past time based on their respective aspectual characteristics, linked with different grammatical processes: ‘temporal sequencing’ for LE and ‘temporal localization’ for GUO. Second, the proposed analysis is tested with a set of three event-related potential (ERP) experiments, in which the temporal and aspectual processing in the brain of LE and GUO is investigated. Results from the ERP experiments support the proposed analysis, in that the processing of time with LE and GUO is reflected by qualitatively distinct ERP signatures: an early frontal negativity for LE, and a P600 for GUO. In addition, these ERP components are different from the ones found concerning the processing of aspect with LE and GUO. Third, the processing of time in the brain with grammatical aspect in Mandarin is contrasted with the one with tense in Indo-European, in order to state a generalized functional account of the above ERP signatures: the early frontal negativity is related to the cognitive operation of ‘temporal sequencing’, and the P600 to the one of ‘temporal localization’. In sum, the pieces of evidence exposed in this dissertation allow us to formulate a neurotypological model of the processing of time in the brain.

    Acknowledgments iii Chinese abstract viii English abstract ix Table of contents x List of tables xvii List of figures xxii Abbreviations and conventions xxviii General introduction 1 0.1. Scope and motivations 1 0.2. Linguistic theoretical background 2 0.3. Neurocognitive perspective 3 0.4. Significant and original contribution to knowledge of the dissertation 5 0.5. Organization of the dissertation 6 Part 1. On the expression of TIME in language and in Mandarin Chapter 1. On the expression of TIME in language 10 1.1. Introduction of Chapter 1 10 1.2. The semantic dimension of TIME in language: tense, aspect and mood/modality (TAM), and beyond 12 1.2.1. The general definitions of TAM 13 1.2.1.1. Tense 13 1.2.1.2. Aspect 17 1.2.1.2.1. Broad definition and terminology 17 1.2.1.2.2. Viewpoint aspect 19 1.2.1.2.3. Situation aspect, or Aktionsart 26 1.2.1.3. Mood, modality and modal systems 33 1.2.1.3.1. Definition and characteristics of mood 33 1.2.1.3.2. Modal systems 37 1.2.2. The time-relational view of tense and viewpoint aspect 42 1.2.3. The possible-world view of TAM 49 1.3. The crosslinguistic and morphosyntactic dimensions of TIME in language: TAM as prominent categories (Bhat, 1999) 52 1.3.1. The formal expressions of TAM 52 1.3.2. On the interpretation of tense, aspect and modality in different syntactic constructions 61 1.3.3. Towards a typology of languages according to their TAM realizations 66 1.4. Summary of Chapter 1 67 Chapter 2. The expression of TIME in Mandarin with LE and GUO 70 2.1. Introduction of Chapter 2 70 2.2. Distinguishing between several types of LE and GUO 72 2.2.1. Distinguishing between three types of LE 73 2.2.2. Distinguishing between four types of GUO 79 2.2.3. Interim summary 89 2.3. Formal characteristics of le1 and the aspectual suffixes guo1 and guo2 94 2.3.1. Formal characteristics of le1 95 2.3.1.1. Overview of the formal characteristics of le1 95 2.3.1.2. Le1 as a perfective marker: on the properties of ‘holisticity’ and ‘boundedness’ 96 2.3.1.3. Le1 and the property of ‘realization’ or ‘actuality’ 104 2.3.1.3.1. Definition and discussion on the ‘realization’ property of le1 104 2.3.1.3.2. Is le1 a realis mood marker? 109 2.3.1.4. Debates around the meaning of le1 111 2.3.1.4.1. On the ‘dynamicity’ property of le1 111 2.3.1.4.2. Le1: termination or completion of an event? 118 2.3.2. Formal characteristics of guo1/2 128 2.3.2.1. Overview of the formal characteristics of guo1/2 128 2.3.2.2. On the ‘discontinuity’ property of guo1/2 130 2.3.2.2.1. Definition and discussion of the ‘discontinuity’ property 130 2.3.2.2.2. The discontinuity effect: an inherent property of guo1/2? 133 2.3.2.3. Guo1/2 and the ‘repeatability’ property 136 2.3.2.4. Guo1/2: assertion of a prior event in time 139 2.3.2.5. Guo1/2: between ‘holisticity’ property and perfective marker 146 2.3.3. Interim summary 150 2.4. Expressing TIME with le1 and guo2 151 2.4.1. Are le1 and guo2 tense markers? 151 2.4.1.1. Overview of the tense-like accounts of le1 and guo1/2 152 2.4.1.1.1. Tense-like accounts of le1 and guo1/2 152 2.4.1.1.2. Unified vs. particularistic accounts 160 2.4.1.2. Assessing tense-like accounts of le1/guo1/2 162 2.4.1.2.1. Future time adverb and le1/guo1/2 in simple sentences 163 2.4.1.2.2. Complex sentences and le1/guo1/2 173 2.4.1.3. Interim summary 177 2.4.2. The expression of TIME with le1 180 2.4.2.1. Le1 without relative past tense meaning 180 2.4.2.2. Generalizations of the expression of TIME with le1 189 2.4.3. The expression of TIME with guo2 190 2.4.3.1. Guo2 without relative past tense meaning 190 2.4.3.2. Generalizations of the expression of TIME with guo2 194 2.5. Summary of Chapter 2 195 Part 2. On the processing of TIME in language in the brain: Experimental evidence Chapter 3. Literature review: On the processing of TIME in the brain in tense-prominent and aspect-prominent languages 200 3.1. Introduction of Chapter 3 200 3.2. Definitions of the terminology: ‘Temporal concord’, ‘tense’, ‘violation’ 200 3.3. Processing TIME in the brain in tense-prominent languages with tense: Evidence and counterevidence 212 3.3.1. Evidence for the distinction of the processing of past and non-past TIME in the brain 212 3.3.1.1. Processing TIME with tense in the brain in French 212 3.3.1.2. Processing TIME with tense in the brain in Dutch 215 3.3.1.3. Processing TIME with tense in the brain in Italian 223 3.3.1.4. Interim summary: Generalizing the results under the Past Discourse Linking Hypothesis (PADILIH) 225 3.3.2. Evidence against the PADILIH: Processing TIME with tense in the brain in German 227 3.4. Processing TIME in the brain in aspect-prominent languages with viewpoint aspect and tense 229 3.4.1. Processing TIME with viewpoint aspect and tense in Hindi 229 3.4.2. Processing TIME with viewpoint aspect in the brain in Mandarin 231 3.5. Summary of Chapter 3 and perspectives 234 3.5.1. Summary of studies keeping the critical verbs constant 235 3.5.2. Summary of studies keeping the time adverb constant 238 3.5.3. Generalizations of the processing of TIME with tense in the brain 241 Chapter 4. Experiment 1. Processing TIME with viewpoint aspect: on the Mandarin morphemes le1 and guo2 244 4.1. Introduction 244 4.1.1. Research question and experimental design 244 4.1.2. Hypotheses 246 4.2. Experimental material 247 4.3. Pilot test 249 4.3.1. Participants of the pilot test 249 4.3.2. Procedure of the pilot test 250 4.3.3. Analyses of the pilot test 250 4.3.4. Results of the pilot test 251 4.4. ERP experiment: Methodology 258 4.4.1. Participants 258 4.4.2. Procedure 259 4.4.3. ERP data acquisition, preprocessing pipeline and statistical analyses 263 4.5. ERP experiment: Results 267 4.5.1. Behavioral results 267 4.5.2. ERP results 271 4.5.2.1. Brainwaves at le1 and guo2 272 4.5.2.1.1. General results 272 4.5.2.1.2. Individual differences in processing the temporal concord of le1 278 4.5.2.2. Brainwaves at the sentence-final word 282 4.6. Summary and discussion 291 Chapter 5. Experiment 2. Processing temporal and aspectual concord in the brain with the viewpoint aspect morpheme le1 295 5.1. Introduction 295 5.1.1. Research question and experimental design 295 5.1.2. Hypotheses 298 5.2. Experimental material 298 5.3. Pilot test 299 5.3.1. Participants of the pilot test 299 5.3.2. Procedure of the pilot test 299 5.3.3. Analyses of the pilot test 300 5.3.4. Results of the pilot test 300 5.4. ERP experiment: Methodology 306 5.4.1. Participants 306 5.4.2. Procedure 306 5.4.3. ERP data acquisition, preprocessing pipeline and statistical analyses 308 5.5. ERP experiment: Results 309 5.5.1. Behavioral results 309 5.5.2. ERP results 315 5.5.2.1. Overview of the brainwaves 315 5.5.2.2. Brainwaves at le1: statistical results 319 5.5.2.3. Brainwaves at the sentence-final word 323 5.5.2.4. Individual differences when processing the temporal concord of le1 328 5.6. Summary and discussion 331 Chapter 6. Experiment 3. Processing temporal and aspectual concord in the brain with the viewpoint aspect morpheme guo2 337 6.1. Introduction 337 6.1.1. Research question and experimental design 337 6.1.2. Hypotheses 339 6.2. Experimental material 340 6.3. Pilot test 341 6.3.1. Participants of the pilot test 341 6.3.2. Procedure of the pilot test 342 6.3.3. Analyses of the pilot test 342 6.3.4. Results of the pilot test 343 6.4. ERP experiment: Methodology 348 6.4.1. Participants 348 6.4.2. Procedure 349 6.4.3. ERP data acquisition, preprocessing pipeline and statistical analyses 351 6.5. ERP experiment: Results 352 6.5.1. Behavioral results 352 6.5.2. ERP results 358 6.5.2.1. Overview of the brainwaves 358 6.5.2.2. Brainwaves at guo2 364 6.5.2.3. Brainwaves at the sentence-final word 367 6.5.2.4. Individual differences when processing the aspectual concord of guo2 371 6.6. Summary and discussion 376 Part 3. Bridging TIME and language in the brain: Insights from Mandarin and neurotypological perspective Chapter 7. Bridging TIME in language and in the brain 382 7.1. Introduction of Chapter 7 382 7.2. On the processing of TIME and aspect in the brain in Mandarin 383 7.2.1. Experiments 1 to 3: summary 383 7.2.2. Comparing Experiments 1 to 3 with previous experiments 386 7.3. Bridging TIME and language in the brain in Mandarin 390 7.3.1. Recap of the grammatical operations of le1 and guo2 and assumptions of their corresponding cognitive operations 390 7.3.1.1. Assumptions 390 7.3.1.2. Structural operation: Definition 391 7.3.1.3. Sequencing operation: Definition 392 7.3.1.4. Localization operation: Definition 394 7.3.2. A functional account of the (L)AN and P600s in Experiments 1 to 3 397 7.3.3. Summary 400 7.3.3.1. How TIME and aspect in Mandarin bridge in the brain 400 7.3.3.2. Alternative explanations? 402 7.3.3.2.1. (L)AN: alternative accounts 402 7.3.3.2.2. P600s: alternative accounts 407 7.4. Towards a crosslinguistic and cross-modality model of processing of TIME in the brain 408 7.4.1. Processing of temporal and aspectual concords across languages and the frontal negativity and P600 effects 408 7.4.1.1. Temporal concord and frontal negativity in Dutch and English 409 7.4.1.2. Temporal concord and P600 in German, Dutch and Italian 411 7.4.1.3. Aspectual concord and P600 in German 414 7.4.1.4. Summary 416 7.4.2. Cross-domain evidence for the functional account of the frontal negativity and the P600 effects 419 7.4.2.1. Sequencing function and frontal negativity: Evidence from ERP studies on narrative and visual events 420 7.4.2.2. Structural operation and P600: Evidence from ERP studies on syntactic, musical and mathematical structure processing 423 7.5. Summary of Chapter 7 428 General conclusion 431 8.1. Summary of the dissertation 431 8.1.1. A tenseless account of the expression of TIME in Mandarin 431 8.1.2. Towards a crosslinguistic neurocognitive model of the processing of TIME in language 432 8.2. Future orientations 434 References 438 Appendix 1. Experimental sentences (Chapter 4, Experiment 1) 453 Appendix 2. Experimental sentences (Chapter 5, Experiment 2) 476 Appendix 3. Experimental sentences (Chapter 6, Experiment 3) 491

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