挑戰點假說強調最佳動作學習效果與工作難度之間的關係。本研究先以三種不同工作難度之練習條件檢驗挑戰點假說；再進一步以動作學習效果與工作難度之間的關係曲線求取最適挑戰點，並改變練習量檢驗最適挑戰點的動作學習效果與效率。參與者被隨機分派至實驗一的三個工作難度組，低工作難度、中工作難度與高工作難度，以及實驗二中的三個不同練習量組，增加練習量、恆常練習量與減少練習量。根據本研究結果所提出的結論如下：(一) 中工作難度有最高的認知努力，而低工作難度有最高的自我效能；(二) 中工作難度引致最佳的動作學習效果；(三) 動作學習效果與功能性工作難度有曲線相關；(四) 改變練習量不影響自我效能與認知努力；(五) 減少練習量會導致動作學習效果較差；而增加練習量則無助於增進動作學習效果；(六) 練習次數與動作學習效果有曲線相關；與 (七) 減少練習量與維持練習量恆常為較有效率的練習條件。

Challenge point hypothesis emphasized the relationship between the best motor learning effect and task difficulty. In this study, three task difficulty levels were used to examine challenge point hypothesis. Furthermore, the motor learning effect and efficiency were investigated by manipulating the amount of practice with optimal challenge point which was calculated by the curve of the relationship between motor learning effect and task difficulty. Participants were randomly assigned to high, medium, or low task difficulty levels groups in experimental 1, and one of three groups that practiced with increase, constant, or decrease different the amount of practice in experimental 2. Based on the results of this study, conclusions were as follows: (1) the medium task difficulty caused the highest cognitive effort, and the low task difficulty caused the highest self-efficacy; (2) the best motor learning effect was induced by medium task difficulty; (3) motor learning effect was curvilinear related with functional task difficulty; (4) changing amount of practice didn’t affect self-efficacy and cognitive effort; (5) decreasing amount of practice would result in less motor learning effect, and increasing amount of practice couldn’t facilitate motor learning effect; (6) a curvilinear relationship was demonstrated between the amount of practice and motor learning effect; and (7) decreasing amount of practice and maintaining amount of practice constant were the conditions of efficient practice.

王重引、卓俊伶 (2014)。漸增情境干擾結合漸退回饋：檢驗動作學習的附加效應。大專體育學刊，16(4)，378-386。

王重引、卓俊伶 (2015)。練習過程與動作學習的挑戰點假說。中華體育季刊，29(1)，11-18。

王重引、卓俊伶 (2020a)。藉自我控制工作難度與回饋提升自主性：動作表現與學習的檢驗。臺灣運動心理學報，20(3)，43-58。

王重引、卓俊伶 (2020b)。練習過程中的期望程度決定動作學習效應。大專體育學刊，22(4)，316-327。

卓俊伶、楊梓楣 (2017)。動作學習研究的新視窗：人因變項。大專體育學刊，19(1)，i-vii。

林逸、卓俊伶 (2016)。動作學習過程的自我效能變化。中華體育季刊，30(1)，25-30。

Abbas, Z. A., & North, J. S. (2018). Good-vs. poor-trial feedback in motor learning: The role of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation across levels of task difficulty. Learning and Instruction, 55, 105-112.

Akizuki, K., & Ohashi, Y. (2015). Measurement of functional task difficulty during motor learning: What level of difficulty corresponds to the optimal challenge point? Human Movement Science, 43, 107-117.

Andrieux, M., Danna, J., & Thon, B. (2012). Self-control of task difficulty during training enhances motor learning of a complex coincidence-anticipation task. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 83(1), 27-35.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.

Bo, J., Contreras-Vidal, J. L., Kagerer, F. A., & Clark, J. E. (2006). Effects of increased complexity of visuo-motor transformations on children’s arm movements. Human Movement Science, 25, 553-567.

Brydges, R., Carnahan, H., Backstein, D., & Dubrowski, A. (2007). Application of motor learning principles to complex surgical tasks: Searching for the optimal practice schedule. Journal of Motor Behavior, 39(1), 40-48.

Chauvel, G., Wulf, G., & Maquestiaux, F. (2015). Visual illusions can facilitate sport skill learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(3), 717-721.

Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2002). Self-controlled feedback: Does it enhance learning because performers get feedback when they need it? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73(4), 408-415.

Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2005). Self-controlled feedback is effective if it is based on the learner's performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(1), 42-48.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Del Rey, P., Wughalter, E. H., & Whitehurst, M. (1982). The effects of contextual interference on females with varied experience in open sport skills. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53(2), 108-115.

Feltz, D. L., & Chase, M. A, (1998). The measurement of self-efficacy and confidence in sport. In J. L. Duda (Ed.), Advancements in sport and exercise psychology measurement (pp. 63-78). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information.

Goode, S., & Magill, R. A. (1986). Contextual interference effects in learning three badminton serves. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 57(4), 308-314.

Guadagnoli, M. A., & Lee, T. D. (2004). Challenge point: A framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 36(2), 212-224.

Guadagnoli, M. A., Holcomb, W. R., & Weber, T. J. (1999). The relationship between contextual interference effects and performer expertise on the learning of a putting task. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 37(1), 19-36.

Hall, K. G., & Magill, R. A. (1995). Variability of practice and contextual interference in motor skill learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 27(4), 299-309.

Hart, S. G. (2006). NASA-task load index (NASA-TLX); 20 years later. In Proceedings of the human factors and ergonomics society annual meeting (pp. 904-908). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors & Ergonomics Society.

Hart, S. G., & Staveland, L. E. (1988). Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. In P. A. Hancock & N. Meshkati (Eds.), Human mental workload (pp. 139-183). Oxford, UK: North-Holland.

Hebert, E. P., Landin, D., & Solmon, M. A. (1996). Practice schedule effects on the performance and learning of low-and high-skilled students: An applied study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67(1), 52-58.

Hill, S. G., Iavecchia, H. P., Byers, J. C., Bittner Jr, A. C., Zaklade, A. L., & Christ, R. E. (1992). Comparison of four subjective workload rating scales. Human Factors, 34(4), 429-439.

Janelle, C. M., Kim, J., & Singer, R. N. (1995). Subject-controlled performance feedback and learning of a closed motor skill. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81(2), 627-634.

Keetch, K. M., & Lee, T. D. (2007). The effect of self-regulated and experimenter-imposed practice schedules on motor learning for tasks of varying difficulty. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(5), 476-486.

Lee, T. D., & Magill, R. A. (1983). Activity during the post-KR interval: Effects upon performance or learning? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 54(4), 340-345.
Lee, T. D., & White, M. A. (1990). Influence of an unskilled model's practice schedule on observational motor learning. Human Movement Science, 9, 349-367.

Lee, T. D., & Wishart, L. R. (2005). Motor learning conundrums (and possible solutions). Quest, 57(1), 67-78.

Lee, T. D., Swinnen, S. P., & Serrien, D. J. (1994). Cognitive effort and motor learning. Quest, 46(3), 328-344.

Lessa, H. T., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2015). Self-controlled practice benefits motor learning in older adults. Human Movement Science, 40, 372-380.

Magill, R. A. (1990). Motor learning is meaningful for physical educators. Quest, 42(3), 126-133.

Magill, R. A., & Hall, K. G. (1990). A review of the contextual interference effect in motor skill acquisition. Human Movement Science, 9, 241-289.

Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Moritz, S. E., Feltz, D. L., Fahrbach, K. R., & Mack, D. E. (2000). The relation of self-efficacy measures to sport performance: A meta-analytic review. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(3), 280-294.

Moxley, S. E. (1979). Schema: The variability of practice hypothesis. Journal of Motor Behavior, 11(2), 65-70.

Muratori, L. M., Lamberg, E. M., Quinn, L., & Duff, S. V. (2013). Applying principles of motor learning and control to upper extremity rehabilitation. Journal of Hand Therapy, 26(2), 94-103.

Newell, A., & Rosenbloom, P. S. (1981). Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In 1.R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 1-55). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Newell, K. M. (1991). Motor skill acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology, 42(1), 213-237.

Ohnhaus, E. E., & Adler, R. (1975). Methodological problems in the measurement of pain: A comparison between the verbal rating scale and the visual analogue scale. Pain, 1(4), 379-384.

Oldfield, R. C. (1971). The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia, 9(1), 97-113.

Palmer, K., Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2016). Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 229-232.

Porter, J. M., & Magill, R. A. (2010). Systematically increasing contextual interference is beneficial for learning sport skills. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(12), 1277-1285.

Post, P. G., Fairbrother, J. T., & Barros, J. A. (2011). Self-controlled amount of practice benefits learning of a motor skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 82(3), 474-481.

Rendell, M. A., Masters, R. S. W., Farrow, D., & Morris, T. (2011). An implicit basis for the retention benefits of random practice. Journal of Motor Behavior, 43(1), 1-13.

Rey, P. D., Wughalter, E. H., & Whitehurst, M. (1982). The effects of contextual interference on females with varied experience in open sport skills. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53(2), 108-115.

Saemi, E., Porter, J. M., Ghotbi-Varzaneh, A., Zarghami, M., & Maleki, F. (2012). Knowledge of results after relatively good trials enhances self-efficacy and motor learning. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(4), 378-382.

Salmoni, A. W., Schmidt, R. A., & Walter, C. B. (1984). Knowledge of results and motor learning: A review and critical reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 355-386.

Sanli, E. A., Patterson, J. T., Bray, S. R., & Lee, T. D. (2013). Understanding self-controlled motor learning protocols through the self-determination theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 611.

Schmidt, R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82(4), 225-260.

Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2015). Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Schmidt, R. A., Lange, C., & Young, D. E. (1990). Optimizing summary knowledge of results for skill learning. Human Movement Science, 9, 325-348.

Shea, C. H., Kohl, R., & Indermill, C. (1990). Contextual interference: Contributions of practice. Acta Psychologica, 73(2), 145-157.

Shea, C. H., Wulf, G., & Whltacre, C. (1999). Enhancing training efficiency and effectiveness through the use of dyad training. Journal of Motor Behavior, 31(2), 119-125.

Shea, J. B., & Morgan, R. L. (1979). Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. Journal of Experimental psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5(2), 179-187.

Sherwood, D. E., & Lee, T. D. (2003). Schema theory: Critical review and implications for the role of cognition in a new theory of motor learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74(4), 376-382.

Sidaway, B., Bates, J., Occhiogrosso, B., Schlagenhaufer, J., & Wilkes, D. (2012). Interaction of feedback frequency and task difficulty in children's motor skill learning. Physical Therapy, 92(7), 948-957.

Silva, L. D. C. D., Pereira-Monfredini, C. F., & Teixeira, L. A. (2017). Improved children’s motor learning of the basketball free shooting pattern by associating subjective error estimation and extrinsic feedback. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(18), 1825-1830.

Singer, R. N. (1965). Massed and distributed practice effects on the acquisition and retention of a novel basketball skill. Research Quarterly, 36(1), 68-77.

Stelmach, G. E. (1969). Efficiency of motor learning as a function of intertrial rest. Research Quarterly, 40(1), 198-202.

Sugarman, B. (1989). The well-managed human service organization: Criteria for a management audit. Administration in Social Work, 12(4), 17-27.

Sullivan, K. J., Kantak, S. S., & Burtner, P. A. (2008). Motor learning in children: Feedback effects on skill acquisition. Physical Therapy, 88(6), 720-732.

Tsai, M. J., & Jwo, H. (2015). Controlling absolute frequency of feedback in a self-controlled situation enhances motor learning. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 121(3), 746-758.

Winstein, C. J., & Schmidt, R. A. (1990). Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances motor skill learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(4), 677-691.

Witt, J. K., Linkenauger, S. A., & Proffitt, D. R. (2012). Get me out of this slump! Visual illusions improve sports performance. Psychological Science, 23(4), 397-399.

Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(5), 1382-1414.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329-339.