無中文摘要

In response to globalization, cultural intelligence (CQ) has been highly valued. International experience (IE) is viewed as a direct method to develop CQ. Thus, the number of Taiwanese students with IE has gradually increased recently. However, during the experience abroad, positive or negative psychological factor might influence the development of CQ. This study discussed this relationship from the psychological perspective. The purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between IE and CQ, and the moderating effect of acculturative stress and psychological capital. Quantitative methods were adopted. Data were collected by self-report questionnaire using convenience and snowball sampling. Target population of this study is Taiwanese students with international experience. Correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis were used to test hypotheses. The result confirmed the association between IE and CQ. Acculturative stress plays a moderating role among IE and CQ. Psychological capital as the other moderator shows no significance in the relationship between IE and CQ.

Alon, I., & Higgins, J. M. (2005). Global leadership success through emotional and cultural intelligences. Business Horizons, 48(6), 501-512.

Ang, S., & Inkpen, A. C. (2008). Cultural intelligence and offshore outsourcing success: A framework of firm‐level intercultural capability. Decision Sciences, 39(3), 337-358.

Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Koh, C. (2006). Personality correlates of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 100-123.

Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K. Y., Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2007). Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(3), 335-371.

Ang, S., & Van Dyne L. (2008). Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measures and Applications. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Antshel, K. M. (2002). Integrating culture as a means of improving treatment adherence in the Latino population. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 7(4), 435-449.

Archer, W., & Davison, J. (2008). Graduate employability: What do employers think and want? London, UK: The Council for Industry and Higher Education.

Avey, J. B., Wernsing, T. S., & Luthans, F. (2008). Can positive employees help positive organizational change? Impact of psychological capital and emotions on relevant attitudes and behaviors. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 44(1), 48-70.

Aycan, Z. (1997). Expatriate adjustment as a multifaceted phenomenon: Individual and organizational level predictors. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8(4), 434-456.

Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. New York City, NY: General Learning Corporation.

Baum, A. (1990). Stress, intrusive imagery, and chronic distress. Health Psychology, 9(6), 653-675.

Bennett, M. J. (1998). Intercultural communication: A current perspective. In M. J. Bennett (Ed.), Basic concepts of intercultural communication (pp. 1-34). Boston, MA: Intercultural Press.

Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5-34.

Berry, J. W. (2001). A psychology of immigration. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 615-631.
Berry, J. W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In K. Chun, P. Balls‐Organista, & G. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement and applied research (pp. 17- 37). Washington, DC: APA Press.

Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(6), 697-712.

Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Minde, T., & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21(3), 491-511.

Biernacki, P., & Waldorf, D. (1981). Snowball sampling: Problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. Sociological Methods & Research, 10(2), 141-163.

Bista, K., & Foster, C. (2016). Global perspectives and local challenges surrounding international student mobility. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1991). Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: An integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16(2), 291-317.

Bloodgood, J. M., Sapienza, H. J., & Almeida, J. G. (1996). The internationalization of new high-potential US ventures: Antecedents and outcomes. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 20(4), 61-76.

Bradburn, N. M., Rips, L. J., & Shevell, S. K. (1987). Answering autobiographical questions: The impact of memory and inference on surveys. Science, 236(4798), 157-161.

Brancu, L., Munteanu, V., & Golet, I. (2016). Understanding cultural intelligence factors among business students in Romania. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 221, 336-341.

Brislin, R., Worthley, R., & MacNab, B. (2006). Cultural intelligence: Understanding behaviors that serve people’s goals. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 40-55.

Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 1(3), 185-216.

Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). Selecting expatriates for personality characteristics: A moderating effect of personality on the relationship between host national contact and cross-cultural adjustment. Management International Review, 40(1), 61-80.

Caplan, S. (2007). Latinos, acculturation, and acculturative stress: A dimensional concept analysis. Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice, 8(2), 93-106.

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. S. (2002). Optimism. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology, (pp.231-243). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Cavana, R. Y., Delahaye, B. L., & Sekaran, U. (2001) Applied business research: Qualitative and quantitative methods. Milton, Queensland: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Chang, S. J., Van Witteloostuijn, A., & Eden, L. (2010). From the editors: Common method variance in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(2), 178-184.

Chen, X. P., Liu, D., & Portnoy, R. (2012). A multilevel investigation of motivational cultural intelligence, organizational diversity climate, and cultural sales: Evidence from US real estate firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(1), 93-106.

Clapp-Smith, R., Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2007). The role of psychological capital in global mindset development. In M. Javidan, R. M. Steers, & M. A. Hitt (Eds.), Advances in international management: The global mindset (pp. 105–130). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Crockett L. J., Iturbide M. I., Stone R. A., McGinley M., Raffaelli M., & Carlo G. (2007). Acculturative stress, social support, and coping: relations to psychological adjustment among Mexican American college students. Cultural Diversity Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(4), 347–355.

Crossman, J. E., & Clarke, M. (2010). International experience and graduate employability: Stakeholder perceptions on the connection. Higher Education, 59(5), 599-613.

Crowne, K. A. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence?. Business Horizons, 51(5), 391-399.

Department of International and Cross-strait Education. (2019). Statistics report on the number of overseas Taiwanese students in major countries in the world in 107 years. Taipei, Taiwan. Retrieved from: https://depart.moe.edu.tw/ED2500/News_Content.aspx?n=2D25F01E87D6EE17&sms=4061A6357922F45A&s=5E25E54B80BA4C49

Duncker, K. (1939). The influence of past experience upon perceptual properties. The American Journal of Psychology, 52(2), 255-265.

Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Palo Alto, Calif: Stanford University Press.

Earley, P. C., Ang, S., & Tan, J. S. (2006). CQ: Developing cultural intelligence at work. Palo Alto, Calif: Stanford University Press.

Earley, P. C., & Peterson, R. S. (2004). The elusive cultural chameleon: Cultural intelligence as a new approach to intercultural training for the global manager. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3(1), 100-115.

Escobar, J. I., & Vega, W. A. (2000). Mental health and immigrations AAAs: Where are we and where do we go from here? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188(11), 736-740.

Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4.

European Parliament and Council. (2006). Recommendation of the European parliament and council of 18 December 2006 on transnational mobility within the community for education and training purposes: European quality charter for mobility. Official Journal of the European Union, 394(49), 5-9.

Findlay, A. M., King, R., Smith, F. M., Geddes, A., & Skeldon, R. (2012). World class? An investigation of globalisation, difference and international student mobility. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 37(1), 118-131.

Fischer, R. (2011). Cross-cultural training effects on cultural essentialism beliefs and cultural intelligence. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(6), 767-775.

Fisher, R. M. (1995). An introduction to defining 'fear': A spectrum approach. (Technical Paper No. 1). Calgary, AB: In Search of Fearlessness Research Institute.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. London, UK: Further Education Unit.

Gudykunst, W. B., Ting-Toomey, S., & Chua, E. (1988). Culture and interpersonal communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Hambrick, D. C., Davison, S. C., Snell, S. A., & Snow, C. C. (1998). When groups consist of multiple nationalities: Towards a new understanding of the implications. Organization Studies, 19(2), 181-205.

Han, S., Pistole, M. C., & Caldwell, J. M. (2017). Acculturative stress, parental and professor attachment, and college adjustment in Asian international students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 45(2), 111-126.

Horrobin, D. F. (1990). The philosophical basis of peer review and the suppression of innovation. Jama, 263(10), 1438-1441.

Hovey, J. D. (2000). Psychosocial predictors of acculturative stress in Mexican immigrants. The Journal of Psychology, 134(5), 490-502.

Huang, R. (2013). International experience and graduate employability: Perceptions of Chinese international students in the UK. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 13, 87-96.

Hutchings, K., Jackson, P., & McEllister, R. (2002). Exploiting the links between theory and practice: Developing students' cross-cultural understanding through an international study tour to China. Higher Education Research & Development, 21(1), 55-71.

International Academic Mobility Initiative of Learning Strategies and Support Division (2003). Program for North American mobility in higher education Canada-European community program for co-operation in higher education and training. Hull, Québec: Learning and Literacy Directorate of Human Resources Development Canada.
Jensen, S. M., & Luthans, F. (2006). Relationship between entrepreneurs' psychological capital and their authentic leadership. Journal of Managerial Issues, 13, 254-273.

Johnson, E. C., Kristof‐Brown, A. L., Van Vianen, A. E., De Pater, I. E., & Klein, M. R. (2003). Expatriate social ties: Personality antecedents and consequences for adjustment. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 11(4), 277-288.

Killick, D. (2012). Seeing-ourselves-in-the-world: Developing global citizenship through international mobility and campus community. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(4), 372-389.

Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(2), 193-212.

Kolb, A., & Kolb, D. A. (2009). Experiential learning theory: A dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development. In S. Armstrong & C. Fukami (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of management learning, education and development (pp. 42-68). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.

Kolb, A., & Kolb, D. A. (2018). Experiential learning theory bibliography. Retrieved from www.learningfromexperience.com

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (2000). Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. In Sternberg R. J. & Zhang L. F., (Eds.), Perspectives on cognitive, learning, and thinking styles. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Lawton, K. E., Gerdes, A. C., Haack, L. M., & Schneider, B. (2014). Acculturation, cultural values, and Latino parental beliefs about the etiology of ADHD. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 41(2), 189-204.

Li, M., Mobley, W. H., & Kelly, A. (2013). When do global leaders learn best to develop cultural intelligence? An investigation of the moderating role of experiential learning style. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12(1), 32-50.

Luthans F., & Youssef, C. M. (2004). Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management: Investing in people for competitive advantage, Organizational Dynamics, 33(2), 143-160.

Luthans, B. C., Luthans, K. W., & Jensen, S. M. (2012). The impact of business school students’ psychological capital on academic performance. Journal of Education for Business, 87(5), 253-259.

Luthans, F. (2002). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 23(6), 695-706.

Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., & Peterson, S. J. (2010). The development and resulting performance impact of positive psychological capital. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 21(1), 41-67.

Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S. M., & Combs, G. M. (2006). Psychological capital development: toward a micro‐intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(3), 387-393.

Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60(3), 541-572.

Luthans, F., Luthans, K. W., & Luthans, B. C. (2004). Going beyond human and social capital. Business Horizons, 47(1), 45-50.

Luthans, F., Norman, S. M., Avolio, B. J., & Avey, J. B. (2008). The mediating role of psychological capital in the supportive organizational climate—employee performance relationship. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 29(2), 219-238.

Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Psychological capital: Developing the human competitive edge. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

MacNab, B. R., & Worthley, R. (2012). Individual characteristics as predictors of cultural intelligence development: The relevance of self-efficacy. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(1), 62-71.

Marín, G., & Gamba, R. J. (2003). Acculturation and changes in cultural values. In K. Chun, P. Organista, & G. Marín (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research (pp. 83–93). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Masten, A. S., & Reed, M. G. J. (2002). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology, (pp. 74–88). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

McBurney, D. H., & White, T. L. (2010). Research Methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

McCarthy, M. (2010). Experiential learning theory: From theory to practice. Journal of Business & Economics Research, 8(5), 131-139.

Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1985). The dimensions of expatriate acculturation: A review. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 39-47.

Misra, R., Crist, M., & Burant, C. J. (2003). Relationships among life stress, social support, academic stressors, and reactions to stressors of international students in the United States. International Journal of Stress Management, 10(2), 137-157.

Mori, S. C. (2000). Addressing the mental health concerns of international students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78(2), 137-144.
Moon, H. K., Choi, B. K., & Jung, J. S. (2012). Previous international experience, cross‐cultural training, and expatriates' cross‐cultural adjustment: Effects of cultural intelligence and goal orientation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 23(3), 285-330.

Mukaka, M. M. (2012). A guide to appropriate use of correlation coefficient in medical research. Malawi Medical Journal, 24(3), 69-71.

Neuman, W. L. (2013). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Essex, UK: Pearson Education.

Ng, K. Y., Van Dyne, L., & Ang, S. (2009). From experience to experiential learning: Cultural intelligence as a learning capability for global leader development. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8(4), 511-526.

Ng, K.Y., Van Dyne, L. & Ang, S. (2012). Cultural intelligence: a review, reflections, and recommendations for future research. In Ryan, A. M., Leong, F. T. L., & Oswald, F. L. (Eds), Conducting multinational research: Applying organizational psychology in the workplace (pp. 29-58). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Okpara, J. O. (2010). Personal characteristics as predictors of expatriate managers cross-cultural adjustment in Nigeria. African Journal of Business & Economic Research, 5, 113-133.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2006). Education at a glance 2006. OECD Indicators. https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2006-en.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2018). Education at a glance 2018. OECD Indicators. https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2018-en.

Parr, G., Bradley, L., & Bingi, R. (1992). Concerns and feelings of international students. Journal of College Student Development, 33(1) 20-25.

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105-119.

Pedersen, P. B. (1991). Multiculturalism as a generic approach to counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70(1), 6-12.

Peterson, S. J., Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Zhang, Z. (2011). Psychological capital and employee performance: A latent growth modeling approach. Personnel Psychology, 64(2), 427-450.

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903.

Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. (1936). Memorandum for the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38(1), 149-152.

Reichard, R. J., Dollwet, M. & Louw-Potgieter, J. (2014). Development of cross-cultural psychological capital and its relationship with cultural intelligence and ethnocentrism. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 21, 150-161.

Reuber, A. R., & Fischer, E. (1997). The influence of the management team's international experience on the internationalization behaviors of SMEs. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(4), 807-825.

Richard, O. C. (2000). Racial diversity, business strategy, and firm performance: A resource-based view. Academy of Management Journal, 43(2), 164-177.

Richardson, H. A., Simmering, M. J., & Sturman, M. C. (2009). A tale of three perspectives: examining post hoc statistical techniques for detection and correction of common method variance. Organizational Research Methods, 12(4), 762–800.

Riolli, L., Savicki, V., & Richards, J. (2012). Psychological capital as a buffer to student stress. Psychology, 3(12), 1202-1207.

Rosen, R., & Digh, P. (2001). Developing globally literate leaders. Training and Development-Alexandria-American Society for Training and Development, 55(5), 70-83.

Şahin, F., Gurbuz, S., & Köksal, O. (2014). Cultural intelligence (CQ) in action: The effects of personality and international assignment on the development of CQ. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 39, 152-163.

Sandhu, D. S., & Asrabadi, B. R. (1994). Development of an acculturative stress scale for international students: Preliminary findings. Psychological Reports, 75(1), 435-448.

Schlabs, T., (2010). Students‘mobility in Europe: A survey carried out within the CHarME project. Paper presented at the Valoriation Conference on Challenges of Harmonizing Medical Education in Europe. Retrieved from https://www.charite.de/charme/docs/FC_Schlabs.pdf

Schmid, S., & Kretschmer, K. (2005). How international are German supervisory boards? – An exploratory study. Berlin, Germany: ESCP-EAP.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). Learned optimism. New York City, NY: Pocket Books.

Shannon, L. M., & Begley, T. M. (2008). Antecedents of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications (pp. 41-55). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Smart, J. F., & Smart, D. W. (1995). Acculturative stress: The experience of the Hispanic immigrant. The Counseling Psychologist, 23(1), 25-42.

Snyder, C. R., Irving, L., & Anderson, J. R. (1991). Hope and health: measuring the will and the ways. In C .R. Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective (pp.285-305). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.

Sommer, L. (2012). The measurement of international experience as a dimension of board indices: Concept for an improvement. International Journal of Business Administration, 3(4), 2-19.

Specht, L. B., & Sandlin, P. K. (1991). The differential effects of experiential learning activities and traditional lecture classes in accounting. Simulation & Gaming, 22(2), 196-210.

Sweetman, D., & Luthans, F. (2010). The power of positive psychology: Psychological capital and work engagement. In A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (pp. 54-68). New York City, NY: Psychology Press.

Tarique, I., & Takeuchi, R. (2008). Developing cultural intelligence: The roles of international nonwork experiences. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications (pp. 56-70). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Tehseen, S., Ramayah, T., & Sajilan, S. (2017). Testing and controlling for common method variance: A review of available methods. Journal of Management Sciences, 4(2), 142-168.

Triandis, H. C. (2006). Cultural intelligence in organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 20-26.

Tseng, W. C., & Newton, F. B. (2002). International students' strategies for well-being. College Student Journal, 36(4), 591-598.

Turesky, E. F., & Gallagher, D. (2011). Know thyself: Coaching for leadership using Kolb’s experiential learning theory. The Coaching Psychologist, 7(1), 5-14.

Universities UK (2008). The future of UK student mobility. London, UK: Europe Unit Report.

Van Teijlingen, E. R., & Hundley, V. (2001). The importance of pilot studies. Social Research Update, 35, 1-5.

Verbik, L., & Lasanowski, V. (2007). International student mobility: Patterns and trends. World Education News and Reviews, 20(10), 1-16.

Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., & Oke, A. (2011). Retracted: Authentically leading groups: The mediating role of collective psychological capital and trust. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(1), 4-24.

Ward, C. (2008). Thinking outside the Berry boxes: New perspectives on identity, acculturation and intercultural relations. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(2), 105-114.

Ye, J. (2006). An examination of acculturative stress, interpersonal social support, and use of online ethnic social groups among Chinese international students. The Howard Journal of Communications, 17(1), 1-20.
Yeh, C. J., & Inose, M. (2003). International students' reported English fluency, social support satisfaction, and social connectedness as predictors of acculturative stress. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 16(1), 15-28.

Yunlu, D. G. & Clapp-Smith, R. (2014). Metacognition, cultural psychological capital and motivational cultural intelligence. Cross Cultural Management, 21(4), 386-399.

Zakaria, N. (2000). The effects of cross-cultural training on the acculturation process of the global workforce. International Journal of Manpower, 21(6), 492-510.

Zhang, Y. (2012). An examination of acculturative stress, perceived social support and depression among Chinese international students. Child and Family Studies – Theses. Paper 3. Retrieved from http://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=cfs_thesis

Zhao, C. M., Kuh, G. D., & Carini, R. M. (2005). A comparison of international student and American student engagement in effective educational practices. The Journal of Higher Education, 76(2), 209-231.