本研究主要探究直接教學模式對不同認知問題識字困難學童識字與字-詞應用學習成效與相關影響因素。共包括兩個系列性的研究，研究一先以20名識字困難學童為對象，以聽覺處理、視覺處理、中文字形知識與唸名速度四個識字相關認知成份為變項，比較識字困難組學童（RD）識字相關認知成份表現分別與非識字困難之同年齡對照組（CA）以及識字量相當但年齡較小對照組（RL）學童之差異；再將每位RD學童之各項認知成份表現與CA及RL組進行比較，統計不同認知成份缺陷與落後的出現比例與識字困難學童認知問題的人數分佈情形。進而從不同認知問題形態中選出6名學童參與研究二之教學活動。研究二分別以直接教學模式與形聲相似字配合學習監控與精熟練習，以識字困難之不同認知問題學童（各3名）為受試進行教學介入實驗。研究結果如下：

研究一：識字困難學童識字相關認知成份困難之差異與認知成份困難的出現情形

一、 RD組學童注音唸名表現同時顯著較CA組與RL組學童差，表示識字困難學童之注音唸名速度表現處於缺陷的狀況；
二、 RD學童之聲調覺識、聲調記憶、視覺符號記憶、字形規則區辨、部首表義知識、數字唸名、顏色唸名與圖畫唸名能力與RL組無顯著差異但較CA組差，表示此等能力處於落後但非缺陷的狀況；
三、 三組學童之視覺符號配對、字形組合能力與聲旁表音知識三項能力間無顯著差異，表示此三項能力與識字困難的問題關係較小。
四、 個別分析識字困難學童的各項認知成份困難的出現比例發現，所有（20名）識字困難學童中，有30%（6名）的學童各項識字相關認知成份僅處於落後的情況；其餘14名（70%）學童有一項以上認知成份出現缺陷的情況。
五、 在認知成份缺陷的學童中，唸名缺陷的人數比例最高（65%）；其次為聽覺處理缺陷（35%）；同時出現唸名與聽覺處理缺陷的人數比例亦達30%（6位）之多，其中有2位學童（10%）同時亦出現視覺處理缺陷問題。
六、 研究者根據研究一個別認知成份分析的結果，挑選2名唸名缺陷、2名多重缺陷（「唸名缺陷、聽覺處理缺陷」與「唸名、聽覺處理、視覺處理缺陷」）、2名認知落後學童，做為第二階段研究對象，探究直接教學模式對不同認知問題識字困難學童的教學成效。

研究二：直接教學模式與形聲相似字配合學習監控與精熟練習流程對學童識字學習效果的影響、錯誤類型分析結果與滿意度調查

一、 直接教學模式與形聲相似字配合學習監控與精熟練習流程均使唸名缺陷、多重缺陷與認知落後三種認知問題學童在單字與字-詞造句應用的學習上，產生顯著的學習效果。
二、 直接教學模式為三組不同認知問題學童之單字與字-詞應用學習帶來更大且更穩定的學習效果。
三、 歸納學童錯誤型態，由較不成熟到較成熟的識字發展趨勢可分為無反應、視覺錯誤、字形功能運用錯誤與聲旁錯誤四種類型。
四、 錯誤類型分析結果顯示，直接教學模式與形聲相似字配合學習監控與精熟練習流程可幫助三種認知問題學童運用更為成熟的認字策略認字。
五、 不同認知問題學童接受直接教學模式後的犯錯率隨著不同處理期的減少幅度，比形聲相似字配合學習監控與精熟練習流程對照組學童明顯。
六、 不同認知問題學童均表示對直接教學模式的各項重要元素感到滿意。
七、 學童對直接教學模式之分散識字的教學設計、精熟練習與複習、聲韻練習、檢視學習曲線與增強方式等重要元素感到最滿意。

綜合本研究結果，研究者在未來研究上與教學上，針對中文識字認知成份問題、未來認知缺陷組型分析的探究與直接教學模式在中文識字教學上提出建議。

The effect of Direct Instruction Model on Chinese dyslexic children with different reading related cognitive problems

Abstract

This research incorporates 2 serial studies. Study 1 investigates the cognitive problems of 20 Chinese-speaking children with reading difficulty (RD group). The RD group’s tonal abilities, visual abilities, Chinese orthographic abilities and naming speed are measured and compared with 2 matched groups, namely the chronological age group (CA group) and the reading level group (RL group). In Study 2, Single-subject multiple-probe design is used to investigate the instructional effects of Direct Instruction Model (DI) on RD children with different cognitive problems. Six RD children participated in Study 2 are recruited from Study 1. The 6 participants are paired and divided into the experimental and controlled groups, in which 3 take part in the DI instructional program as the experimental group, and the other 3 participate in the complex-intervention program consisted of similar phonetic components and monitored learning with mastery processes (SPMM) as the control group. The results of Study 1 and Study 2 are listed below:

Study 1

1. Zhu-Yin naming speed of RD group is significantly slower than that of CA and RL groups, suggesting that Chinese RD children’s Zhu-Yin naming speed is deficient.
2. The abilities of tonal awareness, tonal memory, visual memory, Chinese orthographic awareness, understanding the orthographic function of semantic component, number naming, color naming and picture naming of the RD group are significantly poorer than that of the CA group but statistically similar to that of the RL group, suggesting that these abilities of RD children are delayed but not deficient.
3. The differences in the abilities of visual pair, understanding how to use the function of orthographic regularity and phonetic component between the RD, CA and RL groups are not significant, suggesting that these 3 abilities are not the major cognitive problems of Chinese RD children.
4. Six out of the 20 children in the RD group (30%) have merely delayed but not deficient cognitive problems; while 70% of them have at least one reading related cognitive problems in deficient.
5. Thirteen out of the 20 RD children’s (65%) are deficient in naming speed; 7 (35%) are deficient in tonal ability, and 6 out of the 7 children are deficient in naming speed at the same time; 2 (10%) are deficient in visual abilities, and both of them are also deficient in naming speed and tonal awareness.
6. Three pairs of students with different cognitive problems are recruited according to the results of Study 1: one pair of the participants in Study 2 are recruited from the cognitive-delayed group; and the other 2 pairs of the participants are respectively recruited from cognitive-deficient groups of naming speed and multiple deficient groups.

Study 2

1. Significant positive effects of both DI and SPMM on the performances of children with different cognitive problems in learning to read Chinese characters and in learning to use a new Chinese word to form new sentences are found; nevertheless, the effects of DI are greater than that of SPMM.
2. Four error-patterns representing different developmental phases of character reading are generalized, they are none response, visual cue error, orthographic cue error and phonetic cue error.
3. According to the participants’ changes of the error-patters in different periods of intervention, both the DI and SPMM can help children to learn to use the more mature strategies to read Chinese characters; nevertheless, children in the DI program make more obvious and stable changes than those in the SPMM program.
4. Children in the DI program gradually make fewer errors than those in the SPMM program.
5. Children with different cognitive problems are satisfied with the all the components of DI, especially in the design of the teaching methods, the processes of mastery and practice, learning the phonological information embedded in the characters, monitoring the progresses and the ways of showing rewards in the middle of teaching.

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