本研究旨在比較兩種圖像化教學—鍵接圖心像教學和語意圖抄寫教學對於三位國小二年級讀寫障礙學生的寫字學習成效。研究方法採用單一受試研究法之交替處理設計進行教學實驗，在交替處理期同一節課交替兩種教學法共進行十次寫字教學，教學目標字選取高頻字，兩種教學法每節課教學目標字控制文字複雜度配對筆畫數，目標字的筆畫數隨著每節課逐次增加。最後再以兩者之中最佳的教學法—鍵接圖心像教學在最後處理期進行四次教學。教學後評量研究參與者在寫字學習—聽寫和看注音寫國字的立即成效和一週後的保留成效，並針對寫字錯誤類型進行分析。本研究結果如下：
一、鍵接圖心像教學在寫字的立即成效上具有穩定成效和高度介入效果，在寫字的保留成效也高於語意圖抄寫教學。
二、在文字複雜度方面，鍵接圖心像教學在寫字的立即成效上，結果顯示受筆畫數影響程度低；在寫字的保留成效上，受筆畫數影響程度較多。
三、在寫字錯誤類型方面，鍵接圖心像教學在寫字立即成效上，未作答比率較低，寫字錯誤類型以筆畫增減最為普遍，顯示鍵接圖教學有明顯的輔助記憶效果。而寫字保留成效，兩種教學法皆以未作答比率最高，且錯誤類型的種類皆增加很多。
依據上述的研究結果，研究者針對讀寫障礙學生的寫字教學未來相關研究和教學實務提出具體建議。

The objective of this study was to compare the effects of two pictorial instructions—Chinese character Key-image mnemonics instruction and semantic image with repeated writing instruction on character writing performance of three second-grade students with dyslexia. A single-subject research of alternating treatments design with final best treatment phase was employed. During the treatment phase, each instruction alternatively implemented during the same class period for 10 sessions. The target characters were high-frequency characters. Each set of target characters was matched with the number of strokes, and the number of strokes was increased during the learning sessions. During the final best treatment phase, Key-image mnemonics instruction was implemented for 4 sessions. The immediate and retention effects of character writing in dictation and writing characters with phonetic cues were evaluated after instruction. The types of writing errors were subsequently analyzed.
The results of this study were as follows:
1. The immediate effect of the Key-image mnemonics instruction was more stable and higher, and the retention effect of the Key-image mnemonics instruction was better than the semantic image with repeated writing instruction.
2. The influence of character-complexity effects with the Key-image mnemonics instruction was not evident on the immediate test, but more evident on the retention test.
3. As for the types of writing errors, with the Key-image mnemonics instruction in the immediate test, the rate of “unanswered” error type was low, and the type of add/subtract strokes was most common. It showed that the effect of mnemonic was evident. In the retention test, the rate of “unanswered” error type of both two instructions was high, and there were many types of writing errors.

中文部分
丁于庭（2016）：精緻化策略對國小二年級學習障礙學生識字學習成效之研究。國立臺北教育大學特殊教育學系碩士論文。
王立志、楊憲明（2014）：學習障礙學生之認知抑制能力探究。特殊教育季刊，132，9-15。doi:10.6217/seq.2014.132.9-15
王瓊珠（2001）：台灣地區讀寫障礙研究回顧與展望。國家科學委員會研究彙刊：人文及社會科學，11（4），331-344。
王瓊珠（2005）：高頻部首／部件識字教學對國小閱讀障礙學生讀寫能力之影響。臺北市立教育大學學報，36（1），95-124。
王瓊珠（2012）：台灣中文字詞教學研究之文獻回顧與展望。教育心理學報，44（2），253-272。
吳武典、蔡崇建、胡心慈、王振德、林幸台、郭靜姿（2006）：托尼非語文智力測驗（TONI-3）。臺北市：心理。
李佳穎（2009）：中文識字的認知與神經基礎。基礎教育學報，18（2），63-85。
李孟峰、蘇宜芬（2018）：臺灣國民小學國語課本生字於心理語言學特性之研究。教育心理學報，49（4），637-662。
李雪娥（2008）：綜合高效識字教學法對學習障礙學生補救教學成效之研究。臺東大學進修部暑期特教碩士班論文。
杜正治（2006）：單一受試研究法。臺北市：心理。
林堤塘（2006）：綜合基本字帶字與部件識字教學法對閱讀困難兒童識字學習成效之研究。國立嘉義大學特殊教育學系碩士論文。
林嘉鈴（2018）：鍵接圖融入國小一年級國語課程對國語學習成效與學習興趣之影響。國立臺灣師範大學創造力發展碩士在職專班論文。
洪儷瑜、張郁雯、陳秀芬、陳慶順、李瑩玓（2003）：基本讀寫字綜合測驗指導手冊。臺北市：心理。
孫宛芝（2004）：基本字帶字電腦輔助教學對國小識字困難學生之識字成效研究。國立臺北教育大學特殊教育學系碩士論文。
徐宜鈺（2015）：國小中年級學習障礙學生國語寫字錯誤類型分析。國立嘉義大學特殊教育學系研究所碩士論文。
秦麗花、許家吉（2000）：形聲字教學對國小二年級一般學生和學障學生識字教學效果之研究。特殊教育研究學刊，18，191－206。
高佩茹（2017）：國小學習障礙學童寫字困難之分析。國立臺北護理健康大學語言治療與聽力研究所碩士論文。
教育部（2000）：國小學童常用字詞調查報告書。台北：教育部。
教育部（2006）：身心障礙及資賦優異學生鑑定標準。台北：教育部。
教育部（2018a）：107年度特殊教育統計年報。台北：教育部。
教育部（2018b）：十二年國民基本教育課程綱要國民中小學暨普通型高級等校 語文領域—國語文。台北：教育部。
陳秀芬、洪儷瑜、陳慶順（2008）：國小一至三年級讀寫字困難學童基本字讀寫能力之研究。臺東大學教育學報，19（2），31-60。
陳榮華、陳心怡（2007）：魏氏兒童智力量表第四版（WAIS-IV）中文版技術與解釋手冊。臺北：中國行為科學社。
陳學志、林振興（2015）：我也繪漢字= Learning Chinese characters with drawings。新北市：正中。
陳學志、張瓅勻、邱郁秀、宋曜廷、張國恩（2011）：中文部件組字與形構資料庫之建立及其在識字教學的應用。教育心理學報，43（閱讀專刊），269-290。
陳學志、陳仙舟、張道行（2012）：漢語組字規則資料庫暨漢字偏誤資料庫之建置、擴充及運用。教育部頂尖大學計畫報告，未出版。
陸莉、劉鴻香（1994）：修訂畢保德圖畫詞彙測驗。台北：心理。
曾千芝、陳學志、張瓅勻、胡中凡、陳修元（2018）：常用漢字部件的位置規則性與位置自由度與其他文字特性相關之分析-以中文部件組字與形構資料庫為基礎。教育心理學報，49（3）， 487-511。
曾世杰、陳淑麗、謝燕嬌（2006）：聲韻覺識測驗指導手冊。台北：國立臺灣師範大學特殊教育中心。
鈕文英、吳裕益（2015）：單一個案研究法: 研究設計與後設分析。臺北市：心理。
黃秀霜（2001）：中文年級認字量表。台北：心理。
黃冠穎（2005）：部件識字教學法對國小二年級國語低成就學童補救教學學習成效之研究。國立花蓮師範學院特殊教育教學碩士班碩士論文。
塗秋薇（2005）：部首帶字識字教學法對國小識字困難學生識字學習之成效。臺北市立教育大學身心障礙教育研究所碩士論文。
新北市政府教育局（2016）：新北市特殊教育統計年報 (104學年度)。新北市：新北市教育局。取自新北市特教資訊網站：https://www.sec.ntpc.edu.tw/Information/AdministrativeDetails/157，2018年10月9日。
新北市政府教育局（2017）：新北市特殊教育統計年報（105學年度）。新北市：新北市教育局。取自新北市特教資訊網站：https://www.sec.ntpc.edu.tw/Information/AdministrativeDetails/249，2018年10月9日。
新北市政府教育局（2018）：新北市特殊教育統計年報（106學年度）。新北市：新北市教育局。取自新北市特教資訊網站：https://www.sec.ntpc.edu.tw/Information/AdministrativeDetails/286，2019年5月5日。
新北市鑑輔會（2018）：新北市學習障礙研判及資料收集建議。取自新北市特教資訊網站：https://www.sec.ntpc.edu.tw/Counseling/Details/292，2018年10月9日。
新北市鑑輔會（2019）：106心評工作手冊增修第三版。取自新北市特教資訊網站： https://www.sec.ntpc.edu.tw/Counseling/Details/340，2019年5月5日。
楊坤堂（2004）：書寫語文學習障礙。台北：心理。
楊憲明（1998）：閱讀障礙學生文字辨識自動化處理之分析研究。特殊教育與復健學報，6，15-37。
萬雲英（1991）：兒童學習漢字的心理特點與教學。中國人．中國心—發展與教學篇。臺北：遠流。
熊襄瑜（2013）：直覺對應式漢字聯想圖像與筆順書寫練習對以中文為第二語言者漢字辨識及書寫成效的影響。國立臺灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
臺北市西區特教資源中心（2016）：臺北市國民小學身心障礙在校學生鑑定及安置研判參考資料。臺北市：西區特殊教育資源中心。
劉墉、劉軒、劉倚帆（2016）：漢字有意思！跟著劉墉一家趣味玩漢字。台北市：聯合文學出版社股份有限公司。
蔡佩蓉（2014）：以部件鍵接圖及創意精緻化策略提升以華語文為第二語言學習者之學習興趣及成效研究。國立臺灣師範大學創造力發展碩士論文。
謝佩珊（2013）：創意漢字學習教材、圖文聯想類別、圖文聯想性對以中文為第二語言者漢字學習成效之影響。國立臺灣師範大學創造力發展碩士論文。
台灣精神醫學會（譯）（2014）：DSM-5精神疾病診斷準則手冊（原作者：American Psychiatric Association）。新北市：合記圖書出版社。（原著出版年：2013）。

英文部分
Bahr, R. H., Silliman, E. R., Berninger, V. W., & Dow, M. (2012). Linguistic pattern analysis of misspellings of typically developing writers in grades 1–9. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55(6), 1587-1599.
Berninger, V. W. (2012). Strengthening the Mind's Eye. Principal, 91(5), 28-31.
Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Thomson, J., Wagner, R., Swanson, H. L., Wijsman, E. M., & Raskind, W. (2006). Modeling phonological core deficits within a working memory architecture in children and adults with developmental dyslexia. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(2), 165-198.
Berninger, V. W., Lee, Y.-L., Abbott, R. D., & Breznitz, Z. (2013). Teaching children with dyslexia to spell in a reading-writers’ workshop. Annals of Dyslexia, 63(1), 1-24.
Berninger, V. W., Nielsen, K. H., Abbott, R. D., Wijsman, E., & Raskind, W. (2008). Writing problems in developmental dyslexia: Under-recognized and under-treated. Journal of School Psychology, 46(1), 1-21.
Berninger, V. W., Rutberg, J. E., Abbott, R. D., Garcia, N., Anderson-Youngstrom, M., Brooks, A., & Fulton, C. (2006). Tier 1 and Tier 2 early intervention for handwriting and composing. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 3-30. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2005.12.003
Berninger, V. W., & Swanson, H. L. (2018). Role of working memory in the language learning mechanism by ear, mouth, eye and hand in individuals with and without specific learning disabilities in written language. In Alloway, T. P. (Ed.), Working Memory and Clinical Developmental Disorders (pp. 89-105). London: Routledge.
Berninger, V. W., Swanson, H. L., & Griffin, W. (2015). Chapter 19 - Understanding Developmental and Learning Disabilities within Functional-Systems Frameworks: Building on the Contributions of J. P. Das. In T. C. Papadopoulos, R. K. Parrila, & J. R. Kirby (Eds.), Cognition, Intelligence, and Achievement (pp. 397-418). San Diego: Academic Press.
Berninger, V. W., Winn, W. D., Stock, P., Abbott, R. D., Eschen, K., Lin, S.-J. C., . . . Lovitt, D. (2008). Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 21(1-2), 95-129.
Bourassa, D. C., & Treiman, R. (2001). Spelling development and disability : The importance of linguistic factors. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32(3), 172-181.
Brady, S. (2019). The 2003 IDA Definition of Dyslexia: A Call for Changes. Perspectives on language and literacy, 45(1), 15-21.
Chall, J. S. (1996). Stages of reading development (2nd ed). Fort Worth : Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Chang, L. Y., Chen, J. Y., Perfetti, C. A., & Chen, H. C. (2019). The Effect of Key-image Mnemonics to Support Character Learning of Chinese-as-Foreign-Language Learners. Journal of Chinese Language Teaching, 16(2), 31-74.
Daffern, T. (2017). Linguistic skills involved in learning to spell: An Australian study. Language and Education, 31(4), 307-329.
Dehaene, S. (2009). Reading in the brain: The new science of how we read: Penguin.
Ehri, L. C. (2015). How children learn to read words. In A. Pollatsek & R. Treiman (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Reading (pp. 293–310). New York : Oxford University Press.
Ehri, L. C., Deffner, N. D., & Wilce, L. S. (1984). Pictorial mnemonics for phonics. Journal of educational psychology, 76(5), 880.
Ferrer, E., Shaywitz, B. A., Holahan, J. M., Marchione, K. E., Michaels, R., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2015). Achievement Gap in Reading Is Present as Early as First Grade and Persists through Adolescence. The Journal of Pediatrics, 167(5), 1121-1125.
Friedmann, N., & Coltheart, M. (2016). Types of developmental dyslexia. In A. Bar-On, & D. Ravid (Eds.), Handbook of communication disorders: Theoretical, empirical, and applied linguistics perspectives (pp. 1-37). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
Fulk, B. M., Lohman, D., & Belfiore, P. J. (1997). Effects of integrated picture mnemonics on the letter recognition and letter-sound acquisition of transitional first-grade students with special needs. Learning Disability Quarterly, 20(1), 33-42.
Garcia, N. P., Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (2010). Predicting poor, average, and superior spellers in grades 1 to 6 from phonological, orthographic, and morphological, spelling, or reading composites. Written Language & Literacy, 13(1), 61-98.
Gast, D. (2005). Visual analysis of graphic data. In M. Hersen J. Rosqvist & A. M. Gross (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavior modification and cognitive behavior therapy(pp. 1595-1600). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10.4135/9781412950534.n3146
Gickling, E. E., & Armstrong, D. L. (1978). Levels of instructional difficulty as related to on-task behavior, task completion, and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11(9), 559-566.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6-10.
Gregg, N., & Nelson, J. (2018). Empirical studies on the writing abilities of adolescents and adults with learning difficulties. In B. Miller, P. McCardle, & V. Connelly (Eds.), Understanding the Needs of Writers across the Lifecourse(pp. 73-95). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
Hebert, M., Kearns, D. M., Hayes, J. B., Bazis, P., & Cooper, S. (2018). Why children with dyslexia struggle with writing and how to help them. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 49(4), 843-863.
Hepner, C., McCloskey, M., & Rapp, B. (2017). Do reading and spelling share orthographic representations? Evidence from developmental dysgraphia. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 34(3-4), 119-143.
Ingesson, S. G. (2007). Growing up with dyslexia: Interviews with teenagers and young adults. School Psychology International, 28(5), 574-591.
International Dyslexia Association (IDA). (2002). Definition of dyslexia. Retrieved October 9, 2018, from https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/
International Dyslexia Association (IDA). (2014). IDA dyslexia handbook: What every family should know. Retrieved October 9, 2018, from https://dyslexiaida.org/ida-dyslexia-handbook/
Juel, C., Griffith, P. L., & Gough, P. B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy: A longitudinal study of children in first and second grade. Journal of educational psychology, 78(4), 243.
Kent, S. C., & Wanzek, J. (2016). The relationship between component skills and writing quality and production across developmental levels: A meta-analysis of the last 25 years. Review of educational research, 86(2), 570-601.
Lane, J. D., & Gast, D. L. (2014). Visual analysis in single case experimental design studies: Brief review and guidelines. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 24(3-4), 445-463.
Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Wolf, M., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889.
Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53(1), 1-14.
Ma, H.-H. (2006). An alternative method for quantitative synthesis of single-subject researches: Percentage of data points exceeding the median. Behavior Modification, 30(5), 598-617.
Ma, H.-H. (2010). Comparison of the relative effectiveness of different kinds of reinforcers: A PEM approach. The Behavior Analyst Today, 10(3-4), 398.
McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Wat, C. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2003). Morphological awareness uniquely predicts young children's Chinese character recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 743.
McBride, C., Wang, Y., & Cheang, L. M.-L. (2018). Dyslexia in Chinese. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 5(4), 217-225.
Mo, J., McBride, C., & Yip, L. (2018). Identifying the unique role of orthographic working memory in a componential model of Hong Kong kindergarteners’ Chinese written spelling. Reading and Writing, 31(5), 1083-1108.
Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (2011). Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior, 47(1), 117–127.
Peterson, R. L., & Pennington, B. F. (2015). Developmental dyslexia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 283-307.
Ramus, F., Rosen, S., Dakin, S. C., Day, B. L., Castellote, J. M., White, S., & Frith, U. (2003). Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain, 126(4), 841-865.
Rapp, B., Epstein, C., & Tainturier, M.-J. (2002). The integration of information across lexical and sublexical processes in spelling. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 19(1), 1-29.
Rogers, H. (2005). Writing systems: A linguistic approach. Malden, MO : Blackwell.
Rose, S. J. (2009). Identifying and teaching children and young people with dyslexia and literacy difficulties: An independent report from Sir Jim Rose to the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families. London : Department of Schools, Children and Families.
Samuels, S., LaBerge, D., & Bremer, C. D. (1978). Units of word recognition: Evidence for developmental changes. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17(6), 715-720.
ShaoLan. (2016). Chineasy Everyday : The World of Chinese Characters. Lodon : Thames & Hudson.
Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., Wietecha, L., Wigal, S., McBurnett, K., Williams, D., . . . Hooper, S. R. (2017). Effect of atomoxetine treatment on reading and phonological skills in children with dyslexia or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid dyslexia in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 27(1), 19-28.
Shaywitz, S. E., Fletcher, J. M., Holahan, J. M., Shneider, A. E., Marchione, K. E., Stuebing, K. K., . . . Shaywitz, B. A. (1999). Persistence of dyslexia: The Connecticut longitudinal study at adolescence. Pediatrics-English Edition, 104(6), 1351-1359.
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Pediatrics in Review, 24(5), 147-153.
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2005). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Biological psychiatry, 57(11), 1301-1309.
Shen, H. H., & Bear, D. R. (2000). Development of orthographic skills in Chinese children. Reading and writing, 13(3-4), 197-236.
Shmidman, A., & Ehri, L. (2010). Embedded picture mnemonics to learn letters. Scientific studies of reading, 14(2), 159-182.
Su, Y.-F., & Samuels, S. J. (2010). Developmental changes in character-complexity and word-length effects when reading Chinese script. Reading and writing, 23(9), 1085-1108.
Tan, Y., & Liu, X. (2018). Influence of grapheme and syllable learning on handwriting output of Chinese characters in children with dictation difficulties. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1671.
Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M. (2009). Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific studies of reading, 13(5), 426-452.
Treptow, M. A., Burns, M. K., & McComas, J. J. (2007). Reading at the frustration, instructional, and independent levels: The effects on students' reading comprehension and time on task. School Psychology Review, 36(1), 159.
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., Hecht, S. A., Barker, T. A., Burgess, S. R., . . . Garon, T. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: a 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental psychology, 33(3), 468.
Wengelin, Å. (2007). The word-level focus in text production by adults with reading and writing difficulties. Writing and Cognition Research and Applications (Studies in Writing), 20, 67–82.
Wengelin, Å., & Arfé, B. (2017). The Complementary Relationships between Reading and Writing in Children with and without Writing Difficulties (Studies in Writing). In B. Miller, P. McCardle & V. Connelly (Hrsg.), Writing Development in Struggling Learners. Understanding the needs of writers across the lifecourse (pp. 29-50). Leiden/Boston : BRILL.
Wilson, A. J., & Dehaene, S. (2007). Number sense and developmental dyscalculia. Human Behavior, Learning, and the Developing Brain: Atypical Development, 2, 212-237.