摘要
本研究為第一個將生物學之系統發育分類分析方法(Cladistics)引介至科學教育之跨領域研究，其目的旨在以更科學化、系統化且更省時省力的方式獲得兒童概念發展的演化路徑，以奠基於此設計出真正以兒童先備概念為基礎的科學課程。據此，本研究首先由文獻探討及分析建立兒童科學概念學習與生物演化論及認識演化論之間類比的合理性，以為此研究取向提供穩固的理論基礎。其次研究者設計440人參與之跨年級診斷式測驗，藉此檢驗此分析取向所獲得之學生電學概念演化路徑的假設。接著奠基於此概念演化路徑結合教科用書分析，研究者因應不同電學心智模式的學生設計出以學童電學先備知識為基礎發展的教-學序列，最後藉由小組教學的方式檢驗所發展之教-學序列的有效性。
本研究共分四階段進行：第一階段，研究者以單極模式為外群，利用12個認知特徵輸入PAUP 4.0軟體，並以窮盡搜尋的方式分析11個串聯電路的心智模式，建立了兒童電學心智模式演化樹的假設—Tree 70。此假設顯示兒童電學概念的演進路徑為：雙極極性、雙極電流方向封閉性、燈泡因電流會合而發光分配電流燈泡因吸收電流而發光、完整通路的概念、正確電流方向單極極性系統性、電流共享燈泡因電能轉換而發光、修正順序推理模式、錯誤電流強度、電流守恆修正資源消耗模式、正確電流強度。
第二階段，研究者以電學診斷式測驗檢測三年級、五年級、國一及國三學生各60、92、212及76名，藉此獲得學生的心智模式及各認知特徵於各年段的分佈頻率以檢驗Tree 70的預測。研究結果顯示Tree 70的預測與實徵結果大致相符，初步證實了系統發育分類學應用於科學教育的可行性。
第三階段，本研究分析民國57年後八個版本的教科書，研究結果發現：電學相關教科書共有靜電與電量、電路、電壓、電流、電阻及電能這六大次概念之命題陳述共69個，而九年一貫實施後的版本更加著重於電流、電壓與電路這三個次概念。所有版本都沒有考慮到學生的另有概念，且多使用講述、圖示和實驗為主要教學活動。而主要的教學順序，九年一貫的版本大致遵守著靜電與電量電路電壓電流電阻的線性關係。但年代較為久遠的三個版本的安排則傾向於非簡單的複雜關係。所有版本皆與Hrtel所陳之電流電量電壓電阻的線性教學相左。這顯示電流的教學並非妨礙我國學生電壓學習的原因。
第四階段，研究者由第一階段受試者中選取國一學生中具特定心智模式：衰減模式(M1)、混合模式(Mmix)及撞擊模式(M2)各10人，配對平分於TLS實驗組及對照組進行每組5人的小組教學，以進一步檢驗以兒童心智模式演化路徑為基礎，輔以各版本教科書分析後所發展之教-學序列的有效性。結果顯示：本研究所設計之教-學序列無論從量化比較、質化心智模式轉變的分析，或學生情意態度的自評觀之，都顯示其不但能同時達成現行教科書具體目標的要求、協助學生克服另有概念，並有助於電學概念的遷移與應用。而各項測驗成績中，不同心智模式的小組大致呈現M1>Mmix>M2的趨勢，這顯示了心智模式的正確性有助於克服另有概念及協助電學概念的理解。此外，研究發現持有一致性心智模式者的各項學習成效皆優於不具一致性心智模式者，但其並不影響學生認知特徵修正的因素及來源。
綜上所述，以系統發育分類分析取向詮釋兒童電學概念的演化，不僅具有理論的合理性，亦具有實徵調查驗證的支持，且研究者奠基於此分析實際設計教-學序列亦獲得很好的教學成效。此外，研究者基於此種分析取向所呈現的表徵及所獲之研究結果，主張兒童心智模式的運作受「一致性」、「正確性」、及「完整性」三因子的影響。而本研究以概念架構的演化觀點提出「概念的複雜性」、「預設及概念本體的錯置」以及「概念的趨同演化或返祖」這三個向度以更具含括性的觀點，補充了現有的概念改變理論。

This is the first cross-domain study on the use of Cladistics in Biology in Science Education. The purpose of this study is to adopt a more scientific, systematical, and time/effort-saving methodology than traditional research methods to obtain children’s conceptions developmental pathway. This pathway is considered as a foundation of designing scientific curriculum in which the materials took into account of children’s preconceptions. Accordingly, this study constructed a rationale of the analogy among children’s conceptual learning, Evolutionary Epistemology and Biology Evolution to lay a stable theoretical foundation from literature review and analysis at first. Then, the researcher designed a set of diagnostic test items to examine the hypothesis of student’s conceptual developmental pathway in electricity which was constructed by the Cladistical methodology. Next, the researcher combined the conceptual developmental pathway with textbook analysis to design different teaching-learning sequences (TLS) which were based on different student’s mental models. Finally, the effectiveness of the designed TLSs was tested by several different learning achievements of peer groups.
There were four stages in this study: at the first stage, the researcher chose uni-polar model as outgroup and keyed in the coding matrix of eleven mental models and twelve cognitive characters in software PAUP 4.0, then used “exhaustive search” to construct the hypothesis of children’s conceptual developmental pathway—Tree 70. The hypothetical pathway showed that most students’ developmental pathway in series circuit system is bipolar, bi-directional of current closed loop, role of bulb(meet)distribute currentrole of bulb(absorb/hinder), route, scientific unidirectional of currentUni-polarsystemwide, sharing currentrole of bulb (pass through/transfer), revised sequential inference model, incorrect strength of current, consistent currentrevised source-consumer model, correct strength of current.
At the second stage, this study adopted diagnostic tests to 60 third graders, 92 fifth graders, 212 7th graders, and 76 9th graders to obtain the cross-age frequencies of students’ mental models and cognitive characters. The researcher tested the predictions of Tree 70 by comparing with the frequencies investigation. From the practical data, it verified the feasibility of applying Cladistics to Science Education.
At the third stage, this study analyzed eight versions of textbooks about electricity produced after 1968. The results showed that there were totally 69 proposition statements in six sub-concepts (static electricity and coulomb, circuit, voltage, electric current, resistance and electric energy) in all versions of textbooks. The versions after implementing Grade 1-9 Curriculum emphasized more on the sub-conceptions of electric current, voltage, and resistance. All versions did not address students’ alternative conceptions and adopted more teaching activities in lecture, figure and experiment. The main teaching sequences of Grade 1-9 Integrated Curriculum versions almost followed the linear sequence of static electricity and coulomb, circuit, voltage, electric current and resistance, while others showed more complicated sequences than the rest. All versions differ from the one which Hrtel investigated (the sequence of electric current, coulomb, voltage, and resistance). It indicated that the teaching of current was not the reason to interfere with the learning of voltage.
The fourth stage, the researcher selected the students with Current consumption model(M1)、Mixed model(Mmix) and Cross model(M2) from 7th graders in the first stage. Ten students were in each mental model group. The researcher made pairs and assigned them into groups to test the effectiveness of TLSs which are based on Tree 70 and textbook analysis. The results showed that no matter in the aspects of quantitative, qualitative analysis or self-evaluation of learning attitude, TLSs were helpful to overcome alternative concepts, attend the teaching goals of current textbooks, transfer and apply the electrical concepts. Besides, in different tests, the achievements of different mental model groups showed the tendency of M1>Mmix>M2. It indicated that the correctness of mental model was helpful to overcome alternative concepts and understand conceptions in electricity. However, it did not influence students’ factors and sources of revising cognitive characters.
In sum, the approach of Cladistics could explicitly explain and represent children’s conceptual evolution in electricity. It not only built on a stable theoretical basis, but also supported by the practical survey data. Moreover, the TLSs which were based on Cladistics methodology could promote students learning in electricity. In light of the results in this study, the researcher claimed that the manipulation of children’s mental model was influenced by “consistence”, “correctness”, and “completeness”. Furthermore, “the complexity of conceptions”, “the nature of cognitive characters”, and “the homoplasy of conceptions”, the three main aspects, explained the evolution of students’ conceptual framework with an inclusive perspective, and supplemented the current theory of conceptual change.

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