以介質模仿動作的相對位置及年齡差異探討

研究生：陳貞儀
指導者：卓俊伶博士
日 期：2005年6月

摘 要
本研究以觀察學習和模仿的觀點為基礎，進一步檢核Chen and Jwo（2003, 2004）有關示範者背向實驗參加者進行示範的研究結果，本研究採操弄介質之間接模仿方式，探討示範者與實驗參加者間相對位置和動作模仿之關係。研究對象以南部某國小四年級女生（M = 10.0歲，SD = 0.3歲）及某幼稚園大班學齡前女童（M = 5.9歲，SD = 0.3歲）各12名共計24名。實驗期間示範者分別採正向及背向實驗參加者，示範不同的兩款動作型式，實驗參加者操弄實驗介質（木頭人形模型）進行模仿，模仿過程全程錄影。評分者間信度一致性為91.0%，評分者內信度一致性為87.6%。經2（年齡）×2（相對位置）混合設計二因子變異數分析 (two-way ANOVA)，其中相對位置為重複量數，及卡方考驗，結果顯示：（一）在正向動作下動作品質表現年齡較長者優於年幼者、（二）操弄介質所需時間並無差異、（三）介質面向與示範者方向一致、（四）介質上下肢段順序多由上肢至下肢操弄及（五）介質各肢段操作方向多由中心至末端。

關鍵詞：介質（mediator）、模仿（imitation）、相對位置（relative positions）、
年齡差異（age differences）、示範（demonstration）

Effects of Relative Positions and Age Differences on Motor Imitation
by Mediator

Master’s Thesis, 2005 Zhen-yi Chen
Advisor: Hank Junling Jwo, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT
This study was designed to further determine findings of Chen and Jwo’s studies (2003, 2004) on relative positions between demonstrator and learner in observational learning and modeling. Indirect approach by manipulating the mediator (wooden manikin) was used. Twelve female fourth graders (M = 10.0 years, SD = 0.3 years) and twelve female senior kindergarteners (M = 5.9 years, SD = 0.3 years) were served as participants, whom were offered two trials to perform the bimanual movement pattern under face-face and back-face relative positions with manipulating the mediator. The videotaped data were analyzed and the inter-rater and intra-rater reliabilities were 91.0% and 87.6% respectively. 2 (age) ×2 (relative positions) two-way ANOVA mixed design with relative positions as repeated measures, and chi-square test revealed that (1) the elder children were better than the younger ones in performance of motor under face-face, (2) there were no differences between groups under relative positions in manipulating time, (3) the face-direct were same both of the mediator and the demonstrator, (4) the processes of manipulating mediator were from upper limbs to lower limbs and from midline to periphery.

Key words: mediator, imitation, relative positions, age differences, demonstration.

引用文獻

中文部份
王保進（2002）。視窗版SPSS與行為科學研究。台北市：心理。

李芳素（1998）。兒童動作模仿與口語策略的年齡差異研究。未出版碩士論文。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。

李其維（2001）。破解「智慧胚胎學」之謎－皮亞傑的發生認識論。台北市：貓頭鷹。

吳修廷（2003a）。觀察學習中的學習者年齡、教師的口語提示對自我效能與學習效果的影響。未出版碩士論文。國立臺灣體育學院，台中市。

吳修廷（2003b）。示範者的技能水準在觀察學習的效應。中華體育季刊，17，98-105。

李勝皓（2004）。自我口語提示對國小學童籃球學習效果之研究。未出版碩士論文。國立臺北師範學院，台北市。

周何總主編（2001）。國語活用辭典。台北市：五南圖書。

林清山（1995）。心理與教育統計學。台北市：東華。

林韓司（2004）。影像回饋對低運動能力學童技能表現之影響。未出版碩士論文。國立臺東大學，台東市。

邱皓政（2003）。量化研究與統計分析：SPSS中文視窗版資料分析範例解析。台北市：五南圖書。

高申春（2001）。人性輝煌之路－班杜拉的社會學習理論。台北市：貓頭鷹。

張春興（1995）。現代心理學。台北市：東華。

張春興（2000）。張氏心理學辭典。台北市：東華。

張春興與林清山（1988）。教育心理學。台北市：東華。

張慶彰（1999）。桌球生在不同回饋情境中搓球學習效果的比較。未出版碩士論文。國立體育學院，桃園縣。

陳益祥（1994）。示範者的身份與能力對觀察者自我效能與動作表現的影響。未出版碩士論文。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。

陳新燕（1997）。示範者結果獲知的相對頻率對觀察者動作學習的影響。未出版碩士論文。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。

陳新燕與卓俊伶（1997）。動作示範中的結果獲知對動作表現和學習的影響。體育學報，22，329-338。

楊智能（2000）。影像回饋及其時宜對太極拳動作模仿學習的影響。未出版碩士論文。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。

廖克玲（1991）。社會學習論巨匠－班度拉。台北市：風雲論壇。

鄭麗媛（2003）。不同訊息策略運用對韻律體操－繩動作學習的影響。未出版碩士論文。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。

簡桂彬（2001）。不同技能表現獲知對足球內側傳球技能表現的影響。未出版碩士論文。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。

英文部份
Adams, J. A. (1986). Use of the model’s knowledge of results to increase the observer’s performance. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 12, 89-98.

Al-Abood, S. A., Davids, K., & Bennett, S. J. (2001). Specificity of task constraints and effects of visual demonstrations and verbal instructions in directing learners’ search during skill acquisition. Journal of Motor Behavior, 33, 295-305.

Badets, A., & Blandin, Y. (2004). The role of knowledge of results frequency in learning through observation. Journal of Motor Behavior, 36, 62-70.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A., & Jeffery, R. W. (1973). Role of symbolic coding and rehearsal processes in observational learning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 122-130.

Bird, A. M., & Rikli, R. (1983). Observational learning and practice variability. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 54, 1-4.

Carroll W. R., & Bandura, A. (1982). The role of visual monitoring in observational learning of action patterns: Making the unobservable observable. Journal of Motor Behavior, 14, 153-167.

Carroll, W. R., & Bandura, A. (1985). Role of timing of visual monitoring and motor rehearsal in observational learning of action pattern. Journal of Motor Behavior, 17, 269-281.

Carroll, W. R., & Bandura, A. (1987). Translating cognition into action: The role of visual guidance in observational learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 19, 385-398.

Carroll, W. R., & Bandura, A. (1990). Representational guidance of action production in observational learning: A causal analysis. Journal of Motor Behavior, 22, 85-97.

Chen, Z. Y., & Jwo, H. (2003). Effects of relative positions on performance and learning of motor imitation in children. Program & Proceedings (pp. 360-364). Bangkok, Thailand: The 4th ICHPER.SD Asia Congress.

Chen, Z. Y., & Jwo, H. (2004, December). Effects of relative positions on performance of motor imitation for children: A case study. Paper presented at 5th International Council for Health, Physical Educational, Recreation, Sport and Dance Asia Congress, Kanoya, Japan.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Deakin, J. M., & Proteau, L. (2000). The role of scheduling in learning through observation. Journal of Motor Behavior, 32, 268-276.

Gabbard, C. P. (2004). Lifelong motor development (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Benjamin Cummings.

Gallhue, D. L. (1982). Understanding motor development in children. New York: John Wiley.

Gould, D., & Weiss, M. (1981). The effects of model similarity and model talk on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 17-29.

Hall, C., Moore, J., Annett, J., & Rodgers, W. (1997). Recalling demonstrated and guided movements using imaginary and verbal rehearsal strategies. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68, 136-144.

Hebert, E. P., & Landin, D. (1994). Effects of a learning model and augmented feedback on tennis skill acquisition. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65, 250-257.

Hodges, N. J., Chua, R., & Franks, I. M. (2003). The role of video in facilitating perception and action of a novel coordination movement. Journal of Motor Behavior, 35, 247-260.

Kalapoda, E., Michalopoulou, M., Aggelousis, N., & Taxildaris, K. (2003). Discovery learning and modeling when learning skills in tennis. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 45, 433-448.

Khan, M. A., & Franks, I. M. (2003). Online versus offline processing of visual feedback in the production of component submovements. Journal of Motor Behavior, 35, 285-295.

Kirk, R. E. (1995). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Konttinen, N., Mononen, K., Viitasalo, J., & Mets, T. (2004). The effects of augmented auditory feedback on psychomotor skill learning in precision shooting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26, 306-316.

Laguna, P. L. (1996). The effects of model demonstration strategies on motor skill acquisition and performance. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 30, 55-79.

Laguna, P. L. (1999). Effects of multiple correct model demonstrations on cognitive representation development and performance accuracy in motor skill acquisition. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 37, 55-86.
Laguna, P. L. (2000). The effect of model observation versus physical practice during motor skill acquisition and performance. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 39, 171-191.

Landers, D. M. (1975). Observational learning of a motor skill: Temporal spacing of demonstrations and audience presence. Journal of Motor Behavior, 7, 281-287.

Landers, D. M., & Landers, D. M. (1973). Teacher versus peer models: Effects of model’s presence and performance level on motor behavior. Journal of Motor Behavior, 5, 129-139.

Lirgg, C. D., & Feltz, D. L. (1991). Teacher versus peer models revisited: Effects on motor performance and self-efficacy. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 217-224.

Magill, R. A., & Schoenfelder-Zohdi, B. (1996). A visual model and knowledge of performance as sources of information for learning a rhythmic gymnastics skill. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 27, 7-22.

McCullagh, P. (1986). Model status as a determinant of observational learning and performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 319-331.

McCullagh, P. (1987). Model similarity effects on motor performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, 249-260.

McCullagh, P., & Caird, J. K. (1990). Correct and learning models and the use of model knowledge of results in the acquisition and retention of a motor skill. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 18, 107-116.

McCullagh, P., & Meyer, K. N. (1997). Learning versus correct models: Influence of model type on the learning of a free-weight squat lift. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68, 56-61.

McCullagh, P., Stiehl, J., & Weiss, M. R. (1990). Developmental modeling effects on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of motor performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61, 344-350.
Meaney, K. S. (1994). Developmental modeling effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a novel motor task. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65, 31-39.

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. NY: Norton.
Pollock, B. J., & Lee, T. D. (1992). Effects of the model’s skill level on observational motor learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, 25-29.

Ram, N., & McCullagh, P. (2003). Self-modeling: Influence on psychological responses and physical performance. The Sport Psychologist, 17, 220-241.

Schmidt, R. A. (1991). Motor learning and performance: Form principles to practice. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Shea, C. H., Wright, D. L., Wulf, G., & Whitacre, C. (2000). Physical and observational practice afford unique learning opportunities. Journal of Motor Behavior, 32, 27-36.

Ste-Marie, D. M. (2000). Motor learning through observation: Contributions of attention and retention processes. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 38, 323-349.

Ste-Marie, D. M., Clark, S. E., & Latimer, A. E. (2002). Contributions of attention and retention processes in observational learning of a motor skill by children. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 42, 317-333.

Swinnen, S. P., Schmidt, R. A., Nicholson, D. E., & Shapiro, D. C. (1990). Information feedback for skill acquisition: Instantaneous knowledge of results degrades learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 706-716.

Van der Mars, H. (1989). Observer reliability: Issues and procedures. In P. W. Darst., D. B. Zakrajsek., & V. H. Mancini (Eds.), Analyzing physical education and sport instruction. (p. 56). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Weir, P. L., & Leavitt, J. L. (1990). Effects of model’s skill level and model’s knowledge of results on the performance of a dart throwing task. Human Movement Science, 9, 369-383.

Weiss, M. R. (1983). Modeling and motor performance: A developmental perspective. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 54, 190-197.

Weiss, M. R., Ebbeck, V., & Rose, D. J. (1992). “Show and tell” in the gymnasium revisited: Developmental differences in modeling and verbal rehearsal effects on motor skill learning and performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, 292-301.

Weiss, M. R., & Klint, K. A. (1987). “Show and tell” in the gymnasium: An investigation of developmental differences in modeling and verbal rehearsal of motor skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 58, 234-241.

Weiss, M. R., McCullagh, P., Smith, A. L., & Berlant, A. R. (1998). Observational learning and the fearful child: Influence of peer models on swimming skill performance and psychological responses. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 380-394.

Wickstrom, R. L. (1983). Fundamental motor patterns (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.

Yando, R., Seitz, V., & Zigler, E. (1978). Imitation: A developmental perspective. NY: Wiley.

Zetou, E., Fragouli, M., & Tzetzis, G. (1999). The influence of star and self modeling on volleyball skill acquisition. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 37, 127-143.

Zetou, E., Tzetzis, G., Vernadakis, N., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2002). Modeling in learning two volleyball skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 1131-1142.