筆者至捷克馬薩里克大學實習期間，發現大三、大四的捷克學生華語雙音節聲調仍有偏誤，興起研究念頭。本研究以對比分析及偏誤分析理論為基，對比捷克語和華語的超音段特徵（聲調，語調，重音）和兩個語言音系。捷克語中的元音有長短區分，音長不同，詞重音固定在第一音節，為了檢視這些差異是不是造成捷克學習者產生聲調偏誤的原因，設計實驗研究。首先以問卷調查訪問七十位在捷克大學學習中文的學習者，初步了解捷克學習者難點。選取捷克大學中文系華語教材中的雙音節詞，作為華語雙音節聲調發音與聽辨測驗材料，徵求六位捷克籍學生參與實驗，以人耳審聽和Praat擷取語圖，描述捷克學習者的發音和聽辨偏誤，推論偏誤形成原因─學習者不易掌握華語音節的音高變化，捷克語的詞重音韻律模式（重輕，長短對比）讓捷克學習者以兩音節間的輕重對比和長短差異模式，產出和感知華語雙音節聲調。接著請捷克學習者與華語母語者聽辨判斷華語雙音節詞的重音位置，綜合討論學習者感知華語雙音節詞重音位置的結果與聲調產出和感知的互動關係，以語音頻譜圖，音高曲線圖，音長、音強圖佐證。參考高成就捷克學習者和捷克教師問卷調查和質化訪談內容，與文獻中捷克語重音聲學特徵的議題，提出華語雙音節聲調教學建議。
研究結果發現六位受試者發音偏誤率前三高的聲調組為2+4（40%），2+0（33%），2+3（33%），4+0（28%）。發音偏誤率最低的聲調組合為1+1，1+2，1+3。聽辨偏誤率前三高的聲調組合為1+3（44%），1+0（40%），1+4（38%），聽辨偏誤率最低的聲調組合是1+1（8%），3+0（8%），4+4（8%）。受試者按學習華語時間長短分成中級組、中高級組、高級組，發音偏誤率在中高級組大幅降低（由中級組的47%降為21.5%），聽辨偏誤到了高級組才大幅降低（由中高級組的27.5%降為8%）。
捷克學生發音時兩音節的音強對比較強，或前後音節音長差異較大，在發音和聽辨聲調時把降調或低調視為重音音節，非重音音節容易變為平調（第一聲）或低調（第三聲）。針對高頻偏誤教學，並讓學習者認識華語聲調和重音與語調的異同，用相似處如捷克語語調說明華語調形，重音說明華語輕聲。運用雙碼理論和個別化教學理論為基礎進行教學。

During the classroom observations while doing an internship in Masaryk University, the researcher found that many of the Czech students had many tone errors in Chinese disyllabic words, even if they were already junior or senior college year students. Thus, this study focused on disyllabic tone errors produced by Czech college students. This thesis was primarily based on contrastive analysis, error analysis and interlanguage concept . Initially, it discussed the suprasegemental features in Chinese and Czech, making a comparison in tone, intonation and stress for both languages. Difference such as Czech word has fixed stress on the first syllable, etc. In addition, an introduction about Chinese and Czech phonetic system was discussed. After reviewing all the similarities and differences between the two languages, the researcher conducted pronounciation and listening tests of the Czech students’ Chinese disyllabic words.
Online Questionnaire was used as a tool to measure, analyze and make a comparison. The questionnaire also included questions to get preliminary knowledge of the Czech students’ learning difficulties in listening and pronunciation. A total of seventy valid questionnaires were gathered, and six out of the seventy respondents were recruited to voluntarily participate in production and perception tests. Three Chinese native speakers reviewed the Czech students’ tone production, writing down their errors in tone combination with the use of phonetic sound software, called “Praat,” that produces wide-band spectrograms. Given the test results, this research hypothesis states that, “Stress system in Czech words influence Czech students’ Chinese disyllabic tone production and perception. To verify the research hypothesis, some Czech students and Chinese native speakers were asked to listen to Chinese disyllabic words and choose which syllables were stressesd. A useful and efficient research method used was Interview Survey. One Czech teacher and chosen learners were interviewed in the test to sum up the research findings.
This research found that Czech students’ 2+4 (40%) had higher error rate, while 1+1, 1+2, and 1+3 had the lowest error rate in the test production. 1+3 (44%) had the highest error rate, while 1+1 (8%), 3+0 (8%), and 4+4 (8%) had the lowest error rate in the perception test. The study sample was divided into three groups according to the students’ length of time in learning Chinese language (intermediate group, high-intermediate group, and advanced group). The longer they learned Chinese, the higher the decrease in the students’ tone production and perception error rates. Also, the pronouncing error rate dropped significantly between intermediate group and high-intermediate group (from 47% to 21.5). The Listening error rate dropped significantly between high-intermediate group and advanced group (from 27.8% to 8%).
The Czech word stress pattern significantly influenced the Czech students’ disyllabic tone error in Chinese words. When pronouncing Chinese disyllabic words, the Czech students’ syllabic stress was relatively strong or there was a big difference in pronunciation length of the initial or final syllable. For example, the Czech students tend to put one syllable stressed while the other unstressed in Chinese disyllabic words as reflected in syllabic intensity duration and pitch. The Czech students could not prolong or raise the pitch of unstressed syllables and they used Chinese low tone (third tone) or level tone (first tone) to replace the original tone of the unstressed syllable instead. While speaking and listening to Chinese disyllabic words, high falling tone (forth tone) was more likely pronounced in stressed syllables, and it was more often chosen for the stressed syllable in the listening test.
Chinese language teachers should help Czech students become aware of the differences between their mother tongue and the other language they are learning , focusing on tone combination with high error rate and inter-learner difficulties. Aside from providing the students knowledge about the differences of the two languages, teachers could use Dual-coding theory to give students sound and image input at the same time. Individualized instruction would help students understand their learning difficulties and enable teachers to provide instant, specialized feedback.

參考文獻
丁雷 (2012)。談談漢語教學中如何看待漢語單音節聲調與双音節聲調的關係：
以日本大學二外漢語教學為例。廣島大學綜合科學研究科人間文化研究
講座，頁 69-76。日本廣島：廣島大學。
毛世楨(2008)。對外漢語語音教學。華東師範大學出版社。
王力(1980)。漢語史稿。中華書局。
王洪君(1999)。漢語非線性音系學。北京: 北京大學出版社。
王理嘉、林燾(1995)。語音學教程。台北: 五南出版社。
王德春(2007)。多角度研究語言。清華大學出版社。
王韞佳(2004)。音高和時長在普通話輕聲知覺中的作用。聲學學報, 29 (5)。
王韞佳、初敏(2008)。關於普通話詞重音的若干問題。 北京: 商務印書館。
王韞佳、初敏和賀琳(2004)。普通話語句重音在雙音節韻律詞中的分布。語言
科學, 3 (5)。
王韞佳、初敏、賀琳和馮勇強(2003)。連續話語中雙音節韻律詞的重音感知。
聲學學報, 28 (6), 頁 535。
白滌洲(1934)。北京話聲調及變化。北京: 轉引自羅常培、王均(1956)。
石峰(1990)。語音學探微。北京: 北京大學出版社。
朱川(1997)。外國學生漢語語音學習對策。北京: 語文出版社。
朱川(1986)。實驗語音學基礎。華東師範大學出版社。
吳宗濟、林茂燦。(1989)。實驗語音學概要。河北: 高等教育出版社。
吳蕙妏(2011)。波蘭華語學習者聲調表現分析。高雄：國立高雄師範
大學碩士論文（未出版）。
呂叔湘(1963)。現代漢語雙音節詞問題初探。 中國語文 (1), 頁 11-23。
李連珠(2006)。全語言教育。心理出版社。
周祖謨(1999)。漢語節律學。北京: 語文出版社。
周燕飛(2004)。普通話雙音節詞與聲調的聲學分析。
林茂燦、顏景助(1990)。普通話輕聲與輕重音。語言教學與研究(3), 頁 88-104。
林鴻(2005)。普通話語音與發聲。浙江: 浙江大學出版社。
姜瑞涵(2012)。德籍學習者之漢語雙音節聲調研究。台北：國立台灣師範
大學碩士論文（未出版）。
殷作炎(1982)。關於普通話雙音常用詞輕重音的初步考察。中國語文(3),
頁 168-173。
翁書怡(2011)。成人華語文教學課堂遊戲之調查研究。政大華語教學學位學
程碩士論文。
耿志堅(2009)。漢語音韻。台北：新學林。
高明明(1993)。漢語語句強調重音韻律特徵的實驗研究。北京：北京大學
中文系博士論文（未出版）。
張春興(1996)。教育心理學。東華書局。
曹劍芬(1995)。連讀變調與輕重對立。中國語文 (4), 頁 312。
許慧娟(2006)。再論漢語的聲調與重音。Language and Linguistics。
郭中子(2014)。普通話自然獨白話語兩音節韻律詞的重音分析。
寧波大學學報, 27 (6), 頁 39-45。
郭錦桴(1993)。漢語聲調語調闡要與探索 。北京語言學院出版社。
陳嘉揚(2012)。教育概論。策略研究中心。
曾立英(2010)。漢語作為第二語言的詞彙教學。北京: 中央民族大學出版社。
曾金金(2008)。華語語音資料庫及數位學習應用。台北: 新學林出版股份有
限公司。
曾麗萍。(2013)。淺析普通話聲調在對外漢語教學中的重要性。長春教育學院
學報，29 (20)，頁102-103。
黃伯榮、廖序東。(1985)。現代漢語。蘭州: 甘肅人民出版社。
葉德明(2005)。華語語音學 上篇 語音理論。 台北: 師大書苑。
葉德明(2007)。 語調與語氣在華語言談中的語用功能。華語語音教學研究。
台北：師大書苑。
廖榮蓉(1983)。蘇州畫單字調雙字調的實驗研究。廣西：廣西師範大學碩士論
文（未出版）。
廖曉青(2008)。英語教學法 (第二版)。台北：五南出版社。
趙元任(1930)。一套標調的字母。國際語音協會IPA會刊。
趙元任(1980)。語言問題。北京: 商務印書館。
趙金銘；孟子敏(1997)。語音研究與對外漢語教學。北京: 北京語言文化大學
出版社。
劉復(1924)。四聲實驗錄。上海: 上海群益書社。
蔡秉倫(2008)。外國學生華語詞彙聲調的發音與感知。新竹：國立清華大學
語言學研究所碩士論文（未出版）。
諸葛蘋(2001)。 漢俄語音對比實驗研究。 南京: 南京大學出版社。
鄧丹(2010)。 漢語韻律詞研究。 北京: 北京大學出版社。
魯健驥(2010)。對外漢語語音教學幾個基本問題的再認識。大理學院學報，9。
鍾榮富（2007）。當代語言學概論。台北：五南出版社。
韓紀慶、張磊和鄭鐵然(2004)。語音信號處理。328。清華大學出版社有限公司。
羅常培、王均。(1957)。普通語音學綱要。科學出版社。
Bao, Z.M. (1999). The Structure of Tone. Oxford University Press.
Beardsmore, H. B. (1982). Blilingualism:basic principles. England: Multilingual
Matters Ltd.
Bičan, A. (2014). Corpus-based analysis of the Czech syllable. conference
Polyslav-XVIII, (3-5).
Bičan, A. (2014). Word Phonology in Czech. CzechLanguageNews, 40, 2-4.
Brown, D. H. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Pearson
Longman.
Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other
more mysterious mechanisms. In Kluwe E. W. & Rainer H. F., Metacognition,
motivation, and understanding (pp.65-156). Hillsdale, N.J. : L. Erlbaum
Associates.
Čechová, M. & kol. (1996). Čeština - řeč a jazyk. Praha：Institut sociálních vztahů.
Chamonikolasová, J. (2003). Pitch Patterns of English and Czech Declarative and
Interrogative Sentences.Brno Studies in English 29, Brno:MU,1,9-20.
Chamonikolasová, J. (2007). Intonation in English and Czech dialogues. Spisy
Masarykovy univerzity. Faculty of arts. Vol. 365. Masarykova univerzita, 119 .
Cheek, T. (1957). Singing in Czech: A Guide to Czech Lyric Diction and Vocal
Repertoire.
Chládková, K., Janíček, K. & Podlipský, V. J. (2008). Perception of vowel quantity
by English learners of Czech and native listeners. In V. P. Polách(Ed.), Jazyková
interakce a jazykové rozhraní a strategie : cutting-edge. Olomouc: VUP, pp. 131-135.
Chlumský, J. (1928). Česká kvantita, melodie a přízvuk. Česká akademia věd a
umění.
Churaňová, E. (2014). The Consonantal-Vocalic Structure of the Czech Word and
Stress Group. Acta Universitatis Carolinae, PhoneticaPragensia XIII(Philologica
1),79-90.
Cornelius, C. K. (1997). A Framework for Basic Chinese Language Programs.
Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 32, 3.
Cvrček, V. (2010). Mluvnice současné češtiny I. Praha: Univerzita Karlova v
Praze .
Davenpory, M. & Hannahs, S. J. (2013) Introducing Phonetics and Phonology (3rd
ed.).NewYork:Routledge.
Dluhošová, T.,Jebavá, M., Kučera, O., Kučerová, E., Uher,D., Lavička,D.(2011).
Moderní čínština pro nesinology. Olomouc:Palacký univerzita.
Dokulil, M., Horálek, K., Knappová, M., Petr, J. (1986). Mluvnice češtiny 1. Czech:
Academia.
Duběda, T. (2002). Structural and quantitative properties of stress units in Czech ‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬ and French. (BraunA., & MasthoffR.H., edit) . Festschrift for Jens-Peter Köster‬‬‬‬
on the Occasion of his 60th Birthday , 338-350 .‬
Duběda, T. (2006). Intensity as a macroprosodic variable in Czech.In
R. Hoffmann & H. Mixdorff(Eds.) Speech Prosody, (pp185-188). Dresden:
TUDpress.
Duběda, T. & Raab, J. (2008). Pitch Accents, Boundary Tones and Contours:
Automatic Learning of Czech Intonation. Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
5246, 293-301.
Dvořák, V. (2008). Primary and secpndary stress in Czech. Retrived April 28, 2015,
from Rutgers University: www.rci.rutgers.edu/~dvorakov/papers.htm
Dvořák, V. (2010). Voicing assimilation in Czech. Rutgers Linguistics Working
Papers, 3, 115-144.
Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University
Press .
Fry, D.B. (1955). Duration and Intensity as Physical Correlates of Linguistic Stress.
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 27 (4), 765.
Fry, D.B. (1958). Experiments in the perception of stress. Language and Speech,
126-152.
Goedemans, R., & Zantenvan, E. (2007). Stress and accent in Indonesian. LOT
“Occasional Series, 9, 35-62.
Goldsmith, J. (1981). Tone Languages. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics.
Pergamon Press.
Guo, T. & Liang, L. J. (2008). Tone Production in Mandarin Chinese By American
Students: A Case Study . 20th North American Conference on Chinese
Linguistics ( 123-138). Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University.
Gussenhoven, C. (2004). The Phonology of Tone and Intonation. United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
Hála, B., & Sovák, M.(1962) Hlas, řeč, sluch; základy fonetiky a logopedie(4th
ed.).Praha: Státní pedagogické nakl.
Hamadová, P., Květoňová, L., & Nováková, Z. (2007). Texty k distančnímu
vzdělávání (2nd ed.). Brno: Paido.
Hayes, B. (1994). Metrical Stress Theory: Principles and Case Studies. University of
Chicago Press.
H. van der Hulst. (Eds.). (1999). Word Prosodic Systems in the Languages of
Europe. NewYork; Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Jakobson, R. (1962). Contributions to the Study of Czech Accent. Selected Writings,
614-625.
Janota, P., & Liljencrants, J.（1969）The effect of fundamental frequency changes on
the perception of stress by Czech listeners. STL-QPSR, 10 (4), 32-38.
Volín, J., Weingartová, L. (2014). Acoustic Correalates of Word Stress as a
Cue to Accent Strength. Research in Language, 12, 175.
Krčmová, M. (1995). Intonation in continuous speech. In P. Karlík, M. Nekula, Z.
Rusínová (Eds.), Příruční mluvnice češtiny. Praha.
Kroul, M. (2009). Automatic detection of emphasized words for performance
enhancement of a czech asr system. Proceedings of 13th International
Conference Speech and Computer, 470-473.
Kučera, H. (1961). The phonology of Czech. s-Gravenhage: Mouton & company.
Kučera, H. & Monroe, G. K. (1968): A Comparative Quantitative Phonology of
Russian, Czech, and German. New York: American Elsevier Publishing
Company.
Kuldanová, P. (2013). Basics of Czech Orthoepy . Ostrava, CzechRepublic:
University of Ostrava.
Liberman, M. (1975). The Intonational System of English. Ph.D Dissertation. MIT.
Lott, D. (1983). Analysing and counteracting interference errors. English Language
Teaching Journal , 37, 256-261.
Ludvíková, M. (1987). Čísla o hláskách In M.Těšilova, H. Confortiová (Ed.), O
češtině v číslech. (pp.91–108). Praha: Academia.
Mantle, D. R. & Hoskun, J. K. (1997). Tone Acquisition in Beginning Mandarin
Learners. Deseret Language and Linguistic Society Symposium, 23, 12.
Mantle, H. R. & Joseph, K. D. (1997). Tone Acquisition in Beginning Mandarin
Learners. Deseret Language and Linguistic Society .
Meyer, A. G. (1961). The Semantics of Stress and Pitch in English. The Faculty
Association. Utah State University.
Norman, L. (1976). Contemporary Issues in Experimental Phonetics. Academic
Press.
Nováková, P. (2007). Stress and Rythm in English and Czech. Unpublished master’s
thesis, Masaryk University, Brno.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies. Bosten: Heinle&Heinle
Publisher.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representation: A Dual Coding Approach. Oxford
University Press.
Palková, Z. (1997). Fonetika a fonologie češtiny. Prague: Karolinum.
Pike, K. L. (1948). Tone Languages. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Rod Ellis. (2005). Principles of Instructed Language Learning. 209-224.
Scheer, T. (2001). The Rhythmic Law in Czech: Vowel-final Prefixes. In G.Zybatow,
U.Junghans, G.Mehlhorn,G. &L., Szucsich(Eds.)., Current Issues in Formal
Slavic Linguistics, (pp. 37-48).Frankfurt am Main: Lang.
Scheer, T.(2003). The key to Czech vowel length. Čeština – univerzália a
specifika .12. 13-15.
Šebesta V. & Tučková, J. (2001). Application of Feature Extraction in
Text-to-Speech Processing. Artificial Neural Nets and Genetic Algorithms：
Proceedings of the International Conference in Prague (145). Prague: Vera
Kurkova.
Shen, X.N. (1989). Toward a register approach in teaching Mandarin tones. Journal
of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 27-47.
Skaličková, A. (1954). K otázce podstaty slabiky, Slovo a slovesnost. 15, 19.
Skaličková, A. (1961). Základy anglické výslovnosti. Praha, Czech Republic: SNP.
Spillner, B. (1991). Error Analysis: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Holland: J.
Benjamins Publishing Company.
Strevens, P. (1969). Two Ways of Looking at Error-Analysis. Prepublication
draft. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 037 714)
Liang, J. & V. van Heuven.(2007) Chinese tone and intonation perceived by L1 and
L2 listeners. In Riad, T. & Gussenhoven, C. (Eds. ), Tones and Tunes:
Experimental studies in word and sentence prosody (pp.27-61). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Trávníček F. (1941). Funkce českého přízvuku. Slovo a slovenost, 7 (1), 17-27.
Volín, J. & Weingartová, L. (2014). Acoustic Correalates of Word Stress as a Cue
to Accent Strength. Research in Language, 12.
Vokáč, M. (2013, August 23). Nová nejdelší česká věta se samými souhláskami
vypráví o hloupém vlku. Retrieved April 29, 2015, from IDNES.cz:
http://zpravy.idnes.cz/v-pelhrimove-byla-predstavena-nejdelsi-ceska-veta-ze-sou
hlasek-pv3-/domaci.aspx?c=A130821_124105_jihlava-zpravy_mv
Yao, T. S., Liu, Y. H., Ge, L.Y., Chen,Y.F., Bi, N. P., Wang, X.J. & Shi, Y.H.(Eds.).
(2008). Integrated Chinese Level1 part2. Boston：Cheng & Tsui.
Yao, T. S., Liu, Y. H., Ge, L.Y., Chen,Y.F., Bi, N. P., Wang, X.J. & Shi, Y.H.(Eds.).
(2008). Integrated Chinese Level2 part1. Boston：Cheng & Tsui.
Yip, M. (2002). Tone. Cambridge University Press.
Zengand, S. & Mattys, B. (2011). Separability of tones and rhymes in Chinese speech
perception: evidence from perceptual migration. 17th International Congress of
Phonetic Sciences.
Zhang, C. (2014). The effect of immediate feedback on the perception of Mandarin
lexical tones by non-native speakers of Mandarin. St. Anne’s Academic Review,
5, 106.