本研究旨在探討，透過手機傳送之多媒體字彙學習訊息，對於以英語為外語(EFL)的國中學習者之字彙學習的效益。多媒體字彙學習訊息內容以下列四種註解模式呈現：純文字模式、聲音模式、彩色圖片模式，以及聲音搭配彩色圖片模式。此四種不同呈現模式對於字彙學習之效益，以及此四種模式加諸之認知負荷量(cognitive load)，也在本研究中加以探究。
受試者為來自臺灣中部的三十二位國中八年級生。受試者於固定時間內，一天收到兩則多媒體字彙學習訊息。在純文字模式中，多媒體字彙學習訊息呈現出目標單字(target words)，以及其詞性、中文翻譯，與英文例句。在聲音模式中，上述之基本純文字資訊，與聲音檔同時呈現在多媒體字彙學習訊息中。聲音檔內容為，以英語為母語者(native speakers)，唸出該目標單字以及其英文例句。在彩色圖片模式中，基本的純文字資訊，以及闡述目標單字字義的圖片，同時呈現於多媒體字彙學習訊息中。至於聲音搭配彩色圖片模式，多媒體字彙學習訊息同時涵蓋基本純文字資訊，聲音檔以及闡述字義的圖片。立即後測(immediate posttests)以及兩週後的延宕後測(delayed posttests)用來檢驗透過多媒體字彙學習訊息學習單字的效益。此外，認知負荷量表(cognitive load measurement)則用來探究不同多媒體字彙學習訊息呈現模式所引起的認知負荷量。受試者對於多媒體字彙學習訊息的態度，以及他們的回饋與建議，則藉由事後問卷來加以探究。本研究資料以單因子重複測量變異數分析(One way repeated measure ANOVA)進行討論。
本研究結果呈現如下：
首先，受試者對於藉由多媒體訊息學習字彙，抱持著正面的態度。就字彙學習而言，受試者認為藉由多媒體訊息學習字彙，是有趣、有效，而且有益的。此外，藉由多媒體訊息字彙學習實現了在行動學習(mobile learning)環境中，無所不在學習(ubiquitous learning)的可能性。再者，就認知負荷量而言，聲音搭配圖片模式所引起的認知負荷量少於純文字模式以及彩色圖片模式。此外，純文字模式所引起的認知負荷量高於聲音模式。然而，本研究結果並未指出此四種不同呈現模式的多媒體學習訊息，對於字彙學習上有任何顯著性的差異。

The study aims to explore the effects of MMS vocabulary learning messages via mobile phones on vocabulary learning for EFL junior high school learners. The content of MMS vocabulary learning messages were presented in four different annotation modes: the textual mode, the audio mode, the pictorial mode, and the audio plus pictorial mode. Different effects of the four annotation modes on vocabulary learning as well as different cognitive load imposed by the different modes were also examined.

Thirty-two eighth graders in central Taiwan were recruited in the study. The participants were sent MMS vocabulary learning messages twice a day at regular time. In the textual annotation mode, the target words were presented with their syntactical categories, L1 translations, and example sentences. In the audio mode, the basic textual information listed in the textual mode was provided with the audio references in which a native speaker read the target words and the example sentences. In the pictorial mode, the basic textual information was presented with the pictures illustrating the meanings of the target words. As for the audio plus pictorial mode, all the textual information, the audio and the pictorial references were all involved. The immediate and the two-week delayed posttests were administered to examine the effectiveness of vocabulary learning via MMS. In addition, a cognitive load measurement was constructed to investigate the cognitive load induced by the different annotation modes. The participants’ attitudes toward the MMS vocabulary learning and their feedback and suggestions were also explored in the post questionnaire. The data was analyzed by one way repeated measure ANOVA.

The results of the study were presented as follows:
Firstly, the participants held positive attitudes towards vocabulary learning via MMS. The participants considered MMS vocabulary learning interesting, effective, and beneficial in terms of vocabulary learning. Besides, MMS vocabulary learning realized the potential of the ubiquitous learning in the mobile learning environment. Next, as for the cognitive load, the cognitive load induced by the audio plus pictorial mode was less than that imposed on the textual mode and the pictorial mode. In addition, the textual mode imposed higher cognitive load on the participants than the audio mode. However, the results did not detect any significant differences in the effects among the four annotation modes on vocabulary learning.

Acha, J. (2009). The effectiveness of multimedia programmes in children’s vocabulary learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40 (1), 23-31.
Akbulut, Y. (2007). Effects of multimedia annotations on incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of advanced learners of English as a foreign language. Instruction Science, 35, 499-517.
Al-Seghayer, K. (2001). The effect of multimedia annotation modes on L2 vocabulary acquisition: A comparative study. Language Learning & Technology, 5(1), 202-232.
Al-Shehri, S., & Gitsaki, C. (2010). Online reading : A preliminary study of the impact of integrated and split-attention formats on L2 students’ cognitive load. ReCALL, 22 (3), 356-375.
Ariew, R., & Ercetin, G. (2004). Exploring the potential of hypermedia annotations for second language reading. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17 (2), 237-259.
Baddeley, A. D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.
Basoglu, E. B. & Akdemir, O. (2010). A comparison of undergraduate students’ English vocabulary learning: Using mobile phones and flash cards. TOJET, 9 (3), 1-7.
Brunken, R., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2003). Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38 (1), 53-61.
Cavus, N., & Ibrahim, D. (2009). m-Learning: An experiment in using SMS to support learning new English language words. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40 (1), 78-91.
Chen, N.-S., Hsieh, S.-W., & Kinshuk. (2008). Effects of short-term memory and content representation type on mobile language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 12 (3), 93-113.
Chen, C.-M., & Hsu, S.-H. (2008). Personalized intelligent mobile learning system for supporting effective English learning. Educational Technology & Society, 13(3), 153-180.
Chen, C.-M. & Li, Y.-L. (2010). Personalized context-aware ubiquitous learning system for supporting effective English vocabulary learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 18(4), 341-364.
Chen, I.-J. (2010). Effects of content presentation mode and foreign language proficiency on cognitive load and listening comprehension in mobile learning environment. Unpublished Doctor’s Dissertation. National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan.
Cheng, S.-C., Hwang, W.-Y., Wu, S.-Y., Shadiev, R., & Xie, C.-H. (2010). A mobile device and online system with contextual familiarity and its effects on English learning on campus. Educational Technology & Society, 13 (3), 93-109.
Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1996). Effect of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 80 (2), 183-198.
Davis, J. N. (1989). Facilitating effects of marginal glosses on foreign language reading. The Modern Language Journal, 73, 41-48.
Ercetin, G. (2003). Exploring ESL learners’ use of hypermedia reading glosses. CALICO Journal, 20 (2), 261-283.
Gopher, D., & Braune, R. (1984). On the psychophysics of workload: Why bother with subjective measures? Human Factors, 26, 519-532.
International Telecommunication Union. The world in 2010. Retrieved April 2, 2011, from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010.pdf
Jones, L. (2004). Testing L2 vocabulary recognition and recall using pictorial and written test items. Language Learning & Technology, 8 (3), 122-143.
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1999). Levels of expertise and instructional design. Human Factors, 40, 1-17.
Kiernan, P.J., & Aizawa, K. (2004). Cell phones in task based learning: Are cell phones useful language learning tools? ReCALL, 16(1), 71-84.
Kim, D., & Gilman, D. A. (2008). Effects of texts, audio, and graphic aids in multimedia instruction for vocabulary learning. Educational Technology & Society, 11 (3), 114-126.
Ko, M. H. (2005). Glosses, comprehension, and strategy use. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17 (2), 125-143.
Kost, C. R., Foss, P., & Lenzini, J. J. (1999). Textual and pictorial glosses: Effectiveness on incidental vocabulary growth when reading in a foreign language. Foreign Language Annals, 32 (1), 89-113.
Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2009). Will mobile learning change language learning? ReCALL, 21 (2), 157-165.
Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: From content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. ReCALL 20 (3), 271-289.
Kuo, F. I., & Chiang, H. K. (2006). Story animation: Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Proceedings of 2006 International Conference on English Instruction and Assessment. Retrieved from http://fllcccu.ccu.edu.tw/confernece/2005conference_2/download/C16.pdf
Lan, Y.-J., Sung, Y.-T., & Chang, K-E. (2007). A mobile-supported peer-assited learning system for collaborative early EFL reading. Language Learning & Technology, 11 (3), 130-151.
Lenders, O. (2008). Electronic glossing -- is it worth the effort. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21 (5), 457-481.
Levy, M. & Kennedy, C. (2005). Learning Italian via mobile SMS. Mobile learning: A handbook for educators and trainers, 76-83, London:Routledge.
Levy, M. & Kennedy, C. (2008). Using SMS to support beginners’ language learning. ReCALL, 20 (3), 315-330.
Lin, C. C. (2009). Learning action verbs with animation. The JALT Call Journal, 5 (3), 23-40.
Lin, C. C. (2011). A review of studies on multimedia-assisted vocabulary learning. Journal of National Taiwan Normal University, 56 (1), 1-20.
Lomicka, L. L. (1998). To gloss or not to gloss: An investigation of reading comprehension online. Language Learning & Technology, 1 (2), 41-50.
Lu, M. (2008). Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24, 515-525.
Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 32 (1), 1-19.
Mayer, R. E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting more materials results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93 (1), 187-198.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38 (1), 43-52.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R.E. (2002). Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning: When reading helps listening. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 156-163.
Nation I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
National Communications Commission. (2011). The penetration rate of the mobile subscribers has reached 120%. Retrieved from http://www.ncc.gov.tw/chinese/news_detail.aspx?site_content_sn=8&is_history=0&pages=0&sn_f=18725
Pass, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38 (1), 1-4.
Pass, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2003). Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive load theory. Educational Psychologist, 38 (1), 63-71.
Pass, F., van Gog, T., & Sweller, J. (2010). Cognitive load theory: New conceptualizations, specifications, and integrated research perspectives. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 115-121.
Pass, F. G. W. C., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994). Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86 (1), 122-133.
Pass F. G. W. C., van Merriënboer, J. J. G.., and Adam, J. J. (1994). Measurement of cognitive load in instructional research. Percept. Motor Skills, 79, 419-430.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual-coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Plass, J. L., & Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (2003). Cognitive load in reading a foreign language text with multimedia aids and the influence of verbal and spatial abilities. Computers in Human Behavior, 19, 221-243.
Plass, J. L., & Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90 (1), 25-36.
Rott, S. (2005). Processing glosses: A qualitative exploration of how form-meaning connections are established and strengthened. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17 (2), 95-124.
Ruby, W. B. (1999). What’s in a gloss? Language Learning & Technology, 2, 94-101.
Sandberg, J., Maris, M. & de Geus, K. (2011). Mobile English learning: An evidence-based study with fifth graders. Computers & Education, 57, 1334–1347.
Shahrokni, S. A. (2009). Second language incidental vocabulary learning: The effect of online textual, pictorial, and textual pictorial glosses. TESL-EJ, 13 (3). Retrieved from http://www.tesl-ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume13/ej51/ej51a3/
Sharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mobile technologies for liferlong learning. Computers & Education, 34, 177-193.
Song, Y. & Fox, R. (2008). Using PDA for undergraduate student incidental vocabulary testing. ReCALL, 20 (3), 290-314.
Stockwell, G. (2007). Vocabulary on the move: Investigating an intelligent mobile phone-based vocabulary tutor. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20(4), 365-383.
Stockwell, G. (2008). Investigating learner preparedness for and usage patterns of mobile learning. ReCALL, 20 (3), 253-270.
Stockwell, G. (2010). Using mobile phones for vocabulary activities: Examining the effect of the platform. Language Learning & Technology,14(2), 95-110.
Sung, Y.-T. (2000). The effect of prior Knowledge, text Structure, and multimedia presentations on text learning. Unpublished Doctor’s Dissertation. National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Sweller, J. (2010). Element interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 123-138.
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Pass, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10 (3), 251-296.
Sydorenko, T. (2010). Modality of input and vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning & Technology, 14 (2), 50-73.
Tabbers, H. K., Martens, R. L., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004). Multimedia instructions and cognitive load theory: Effects of modality and cueing. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 71-81.
Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2005). Using mobile phone in English education in Japan. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21, 217-228.
Valk, J.-H., Rashid, A. T., & Elder, L. (2010). Using mobile phones to improve educational outcomes: An analysis of evidence from Asia. International Review of Research Open and Distance learning, 11 (1), 119-140.
Wong, L. H., & Looi, C. K. (2010). Vocabulary learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: two case studies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26, 421-433.
Wu, J. C., & Chu, H. C. (2007). The effects of multimedia annotations on the vocabulary retention of EFL readers. English Teaching & Learning, 31 (2), 105-142.
Van Gog, T., Pass, F. (2008). Instructional efficiency: Revising the original construct in educational research. Educational Psychologist, 13 (1), 16-26.
Van Gog, T., Pass, F., & Sweller, J. (2010). Cognitive load theory: Advances in research on worked examples, animations, and cognitive load measurement. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 375-378.
Yanguas, I. (2009). Multimedia glosses and their effect on L2 text comprehension and vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 13 (2), 48-67.
Yeh, Y., & Wang, C. (2003). Effects of multimedia vocabulary annotations and learning styles on vocabulary learning. CALICO Journal, 21(1), 131-144.
Yeung, A. S., Jin, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). Cognitive load and learner expertise: Split-attention and redundancy effects in reading with explanatory notes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 1-21.
Yoshii, M. (2006) L1 and L2 glosses: their effects on incidental vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10 (3), 85-101.
Yoshii, M. & Flaitz, J. (2002). Second language incidental vocabulary retention: The effect of text and picture annotation types. CALICO Journal, 20 (1), 33-58.