本研究在探討以客語為母語的兒童被動式之習得。旨在驗證客語被動式的六大屬性（如：主事者不可省略性、語法複雜度、複指代詞之使用、(不)幸意涵、生命性/無生命性，和動詞及物性)在母語習得過程中所扮演的角色。研究議題包含屬性效應、副屬性型態難易度、題型效應、非典型作答模式、以及年齡效應。本研究設計兩個實驗題型，一是圖片選擇題，二是看圖回答。研究對象為75位客語母語人士，含60位平均年齡為4至7歲的兒童及15位成人。
實驗結果顯示，不同的屬性、副屬性型態、題型及年齡，皆對客語被動式習得有一定之影響。兒童對被動式六大屬性的回應顯示以下習得次序：生命性/無生命性及(不)幸意涵最容易習得，動詞及物性、主事者不可省略性與語法複雜度其次，難度最高者為複指代詞之使用。此階層性指出語意特性較語法特性易習得。此趨勢亦可見於副屬性型態難易度的表現。在題型效應方面，年齡層愈低的兒童在圖片選擇題的表現優於在看圖回答的表現，顯示其理解能力與口語能力在發展上的差異。此外，在非典型答案模式的分析中，我們歸納了六種主要作答型態：無回應、關鍵詞、主動句、被動句、語碼轉換、及不合文法語句。根據此作答型態，兒童口語發展歷經幾個階段方漸成熟，而7歲則為客語被動式發展的完全成熟階段。本研究期以此對客語教學有所助益。

The present study aims to investigate L1 acquisition of Hakka passives to see if the six properties played roles in the development, i.e., No Truncation, Syntactic Complexity, the Resumptive Pronoun, Adversity, Animacy/Inanimacy, and Verbal Transitivity. The examined issues of the research were property effects, difficulties of sub properties, task effects, other elicited patterns, and age effects. To approximate a speaker’s inner knowledge of Hakka passives, this study adopted a comprehension task (a picture selection task, PS Task), and a production task (a picture-cued production task, PP Task). The subjects of this study consisted of an experimental group (60 Hakka-speaking children) and a control group (15 adults). The children were further divided into four groups according to their mean age ranged from 4 to 7.
The overall results indicated that major properties, sub properties, tasks, and age, were all determinant factors in the acquisition of Hakka passives. From the young subjects’ performances on the six major properties, a hierarchical sequence of L1 acquisition of Hakka passives was found: Animacy/Inanimacy = Adversity > Verbal Transitivity = No Truncation = Syntactic Complexity > Resumptive Pronoun. The hierarchy suggested a tendency that semantic concepts, i.e., Animacy/Inanimacy, Adversity, and Verbal Transitivity, were less challenging than syntactic properties, such as No Truncation, Syntactic Complexity, and Resumptive Pronoun. The semantic-syntax dissimilarity was also revealed when detecting each sub property. Concerning the task effects, the children performed much better on the comprehension task than on the production task. Furthermore, six main types were found in the subjects’ production data: no-elicitation, key words, active expressions, passive expressions, code-switching, and ungrammatical responses. Three stages were defined to account for the developmental trend of each age group. Finally, it was found that the seven-year-olds had reached the adult level both in perception and in production. Given the developmental order, the study was attempted to dedicate to the teaching of the Hakka dialect.

Baker, C.L. and McCarthy, J.J. (Eds.) 1981. The Logical Problem of Language Acquisition. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Baldie, Brian J. 1976. The acquisition of the passive voice. Journal of Child Language 3: 331-348.
Bates, E. and MacWhinney, B. 1982. Functionalist approaches to grammar. E. Wanner and L.R. Gleitman (Eds.) Language Acquisition: the State of the Art. New York: Cambridge University Press: 173-218.
Bever, T. G. 1970. The cognitive basis for linguistic structures. J.R. Hayes (Ed.) Cognition and the Development of Language. New York: Wiley.
Bock, J. K. 1986. Syntactic persistence in language production. Cognitive Psychology, 18, 355-87
Borer, H. and Wexler, K. 1987. The maturation of syntax. Roeper, T. and Williams, E. (Eds.) Parameter Setting. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Bowerman, Melissa. 1990. Mapping thematic roles onto syntactic functions: are children helped by innate linking rules? Linguistics 28: 1253-89.
Brown, R. 1973. A First Language. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Brown, R. and Hanlon. C. 1970. Derivational complexity and order of acquisition in child speech. J. R. Hayes (Ed.) Cognition and the Development of Language. New York: Wiley.
Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. London: Longman.
Budwig, Nancy. 1990. The linguistic marking of nonprototypical agency: an exploration into children’s use of passives. Linguistics 28: 1221-52.

Cairns, H. S., McDamiel D., Hsu J. R. and Rapp M.. 1994. A longitudinal study of control types and the adverbial coreference requirement in young children. Language 70: 260-88.
Cao, Xuexin. 2003. The Acquisition of Double-Gapped Relatives in Chinese: Grammar and Processing. Ph.D. Thesis. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.
Chafe, W. L. 1976. Giveness, contrativeness, definiteness, subjects, topic and point of view. C.N. Li (Ed.) Subject and Topic. New York: Academic Press.
Chang, Hsin-Wu. 1986. Young children’s comprehension of the Chinese passives. H. Kao and R. Hoosain (eds.) Linguistics, Psychology and the Chinese Language. Hong Kong: Center of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.
Chang Li-Li. 2004. The semantic development of causative-to-passive construction. The 5th International Traditional Chinese Syntax Seminar and the Proceedings of the 4th Cross-Strait Historical Syntax Seminar II: 207-33. Taipei: Sinica Linguistics.
Chao, Yuen-Ren. 1968. A Grammar of Spoken Language. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Chappell, Hilary. 1986. Formal and colloquial adversity passives in standard Chinese. Linguistics 24: 1025-52.
Chen, Chang-Wei. 2003. An Empirical Study of Chinese-speaking Preschoolers' Use of Connective Devices in their L1 Narratives. M. A. Thesis. Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University.
Cheng, Robert L. 1974. Causative construction in Taiwanese. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 2, 3: 354-69.
Chiang, Min-Hua. 2006. Grammatical characteristics of tung and bun in Dongshi Hakka and the relatedness of the two markers. Language and Linguistics 7, 2:339-64.
Chiu, Bonnie. 1993. The Inflection Structure of Mandarin Chinese. Ph. D. Dissertation. Mass.: MIT Press.
Chomsky, Norm. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Chomsky, Norm. 1980. Markedness and Core Grammar. Unpublished paper. MIT Press.
Chomsky, Norm. 1981a. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris.
Chomsky, Norm. 1981b. On the representation of form and function. The Linguistic Review 1, 1: 3-40.
Chomsky, Norm. 1981c. Principles and parameters in syntactic theory. Hornstein and Lightfoot, eds. Explanation in Linguistics 123:46.
Chomsky, Norm. 1986a. Knowledge of Language, its Nature, Origin, and Use. New York: Praeger.
Chomsky, Norm. 1988. Language and problems of knowledge. The Managua Lectures. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Comrie, Bernard. 1981. Language Universals and Language Typology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cook, V. 1976. A note on indirect objects. Journal of Child Language 3:435-73.
Dana M., Cecile M., and Helen, S. C. (Eds.) 1996. Methods for Assessing Children’s Syntax. Mass.: MIT Press.
de Villiers, J. G. and de Villiers, P. A. 1978. Language Acquisition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Demuth, K. 1989. Maturation and the acquisition of the Sesotho passive. Language 65.1:56-80.
Demuth, K. 1996. The prosodic structure of early words. J. Morgan and K. Demuth (Eds.) Signal to Syntax: Bootstrapping from Speech to Grammar in Early Acquisition. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dewart, M. H. 1979. Role of Animate and inanimate nouns in determining sentence voice’. British Journal of Psychology 70: 135-141.
Dryer, Matthew. 1982. In defense of a universal passive. Linguistic Analysis 10.1: 53-60.
Feng, Shengli. 1990. The Passive Construction in Chinese, ms.. University of Pennsylvania.
French, L. A., and Nelson, K. 1985. Young Children’s Knowledge of Relational Terms: Some Ifs, Ors, and Buts. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Gentner, Dedre. 1978. On relational meaning: the acquisition of verb meaning. Child Development 49: 988-998.
Gentner, Dedre. 1982. Why nouns are learned before verbs: linguistic relativity versus natural partitioning. S. Kuezaj II (Ed.) Language Development. Vol.2: Language, thought and culture. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum: 301-334.
Givon, T. 1984. Syntax: A Functional-Typological Introduction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Goodall, Grant. 1999. Accusative case in passives. Linguistics 37, 1:1-12.
Goodluck Helen. 2000. Language Acquisition: A Linguistic Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
Greenfield, P.M. and Smith, J.H. 1979. The Structure of Communication in Early Language Development. New York: Academic Press.
Harwood, F. W. 1959. Quantitative study of the speech of Australian children. Language and Speech 2:237-41.
Harris, M. 1978. Noun animacy and the passive: a developmental approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology 39: 495-504.
Hashimoto, M. J. 1988. The structure and typology of the Chinese passive construction. M. Shibatani (Ed.) Passive and Voice. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Hayhurst, H. 1967. Some errors of young children in producing passive sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6: 634-639.
Herriot, P. 1970. An Introduction to the Psychology of Language. London: Methuen.
Hinton, G. E. 1981. Implementing semantic networks in parallel hardware. G. E. Hinton and J. A. Anderson (Eds.) Parallel Models of Associative Memory: 161-188. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hopper, P.J. and Thompson, S. A. 1980. Transitivity in grammar and discourse. Language 56.2:251-99.
Horgan, Dianne. 1978. The development of the full passive. Journal of Child Language 5: 65-80.
Hornstein, N. and Lightfoot, D. 1981. Explanation in Linguistics. London: Longman.
Hsiao, Jui-Chi. 2004. A Case Study on Hakka Language Teaching and Learning and Their Impact on Hakka Cultural Transmission. M.A. Thesis. Kaohsiung: National Kaohsiung Normal University.
Huang, James C. T. 1999. Chinese passives in comparative perspective. The Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies 29.4: 423-509.
Huang, C.T.J., Audrey Li and Yafei Li. 2008. The Syntax of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huttenlocher, T. 1974. The origins of language comprehension. R. L. Solso (ed.) Theories in Cognitive Psychology: The Loyola Symposium. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Jakobson, R. 1968. Child Language, Aphasia, and Phonological Universals. The Hague: Mouton.
Jaeggli, Osvalso. A. 1986. Passive. Linguistic Inquiry 17.4: 587-622.
Karin Stromswold. 1995. The acquisition of subject and object wh-questions. Language Acquisition 4.1-2: 5-48.
Karmiloff-Smith, Annette. 1979. A functional approach to child language. A Study of Determiners and Reference. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kuo, C. F. 2003. The Survey in Meinung about the Children’s Currently Homely Use of Language and the Research about the Relation of the Children’s Chinese and Hakka Proficiency and Intelligence. M.A. Thesis. Tainan: Natinoal Tainan University.
Kuo, Fang-Ting. 1995. Children’s Use of the Chinese Passive. M. A. Thesis. Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University.
Lai, Huei-Ling. 1989. A Preliminary Study on ‘to’ in Hakka. M. A. Thesis. Taipei: National Cheng-Chi University.
Lai, Huei-Ling. 2001. On Hakka BUN: a case of polygrammaticalization. Language and Linguistics 2. 2:137-53.
Lempert, H. 1984. Topic as starting point for syntax. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 49. 5:1-73.
Lempert, H. 1989. Animacy constraints on preschool children’s acquisition of syntax. Child Development 60:237-45.
Lempert, H. 1990. Acquisition of passive: the role of patient animacy, salience, and lexical accessibility. Journal of Child Language 17: 677-96.
Levin, Beth and M. Rappaport. 1986. The formation of adjectival passives. Linguistic Inquiry 17.4: 623-61.
Li, Charles N. and Thomson, Sandra A. 1981. Mandarin Chinese—A Functional Reference Grammar. University of California Press.
Li, Yafei. 1991. On Deriving Serial Verb Constructions. Claire Lefebvre (Ed.) Serial Verbs: Grammatical, Comparative and Cognitive Approaches. Amsterdam: John Benjamins: 103-36.
Li, Grace H.J. 1994. Bei: An Affected Head—the Bei-construction Revisited. M.A. Thesis. Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University.
Luo, Zhao-Zin. 1985. The Hakka Grammar. Taipei: Student Book Co., Ltd.

Luo, Zhao-Zin. 1994. The present and the future of Hakka in Taiwan. The Proceedings of Hakka Culture Seminar. National Arts Series Activities (March 12~13).
Macnamara, J. 1972. Cognitive basis of language learning in infants. Psychological Review 79: 1-13.
Macnamara, J. 1982. Words for Things. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press (Bradford Books).
Maratsos, M.P. 1974. Children who get worse at undergoing the passive: a replica of Bever. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 3:65-74.
Maratsos, M. P. and Abramovitch, R. 1975. How children understand full, truncated, and anomalous passives. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6: 634-39.
Maratsos, M., Dana E. C. Fox, J. A. Becker, and M. A. Chalkley. 1985. Semantic restrictions on children’s passives’. Cognition 19: 167-91.
Marchman, V. A., E. Bates, and A. Burkardt. 1991. Functional constraints of the acquisition of the passives: toward a model of the competence to perform. First Language 11:65-92.
Matthews, S., Xu, H., and Yip, V. 2005. Passive and unaccusative in the Jieyang dialect of Chaozhou. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 14, 4: 267-28.
McDaniel, Dana, C. Mckee and H. Cairns (Eds.) 1995. Methods in the Acquisition of Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.
Mei, Kuang. 1978. Is Chinese an SOV language? ms., National Taiwan University.
Mill, J. 1985. Semantics and Syntax. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Nascimento, Pires. N. 1998. Transitive, intransitive and passive clauses in Djeoromitx. Cadernos de estudos linguisticos 147-55.
Nelson, K. 1973. Structure and Strategy in leaning to talk. Monographs of the society for Research in Child Development 38: 149.

Newman , John. 1993. The semantics of giving in Mandarin. Conceptualizations and Mental Processing in Language. Richard A. Geiger and Brygida Rudeka- Ostyn (Eds.) New York: Mouton de Gruyter: 433-85.
O’Grady, William. 1980. The universal characterization of passivization. Linguistic Analysis 6.4:393-405.
Pinker, S. 1982. A theory of the acquisition of lexical interpretive grammars. The mental representation of grammatical relations. Bresnan, J (Ed.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Pinker, S., Lebeaux, D. S. and Frost, L. A. 1987. Productivity and constraints in the acquisition of the passive. Cognition 26: 195-267.
Radford, Andrew. 1981. Transformational Syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Radford, Andrew. 1997. Syntactic Theory and the Structure of English: a Minimalist Approach. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ren, Xiaobo. 1991. The post-verbal constituent in Chinese passive forms. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 19.2: 221-41.
Ringbom, H. 1992. On L1 transfer in L2 comprehension and L2 production. Language Learning 42: 85-112.
Roeper, T., Lapointe, S., Bing, J. and Tavakolian, S. 1981. A lexical approach to language acquisition. Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory. Tavakolian S. (Ed.) Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Sanders, Gerald, and Tai, James H. Y. 1972. Immediate dominance and identity deletion. Foundations of Language 8:161-198.
Shen, Cheng-Lan. 2006. An Empirical Study of Chinese-Speaking Children's Acquisition of Topic Constructions. M. A. Thesis. Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University.

Shi, Dingxu. 2000. Topic and topic-comment constructions in Mandarin Chinese. Language 76, 2: 383-408.
Shi, Yuzhi. 2004. Gei: its double functions as passive and disposal markers. Chinese Teaching in the World 3:15-26.
Siewierska, Ann. 1984. The Passive: A Comparative Linguistic Analysis. London: Groom Helm.
Strohner, Hans and Nelson, K.E. 1974. Young children’s development of sentence comprehension: influence of event probabilities, nonverbal context, syntactic form, and strategies. Child Development 45:567-76.
Sudhalter, Vicki and Braine, M. D. S. 1985. How does comprehension of passives develop? A comparison of actional and experiential verbs. Journal of Child Language 12: 455-470.
Suzuki, Takaaki. 2000. A subject-object asymmetry in the first language acquisition of Japanese: the omissibility and retention of case-marking particles. Chicago Linguistic Society 36, 2: 499-510.
Syi, Chio-Cheng. (Ed.) 2001. Hakka Dictionary of Taiwan. Taipei: Nantiang Publishing Co.
Tang, Sze-Wing. 2001. A complementation approach to Chinese passives and its consequences. Linguistics 39, 2: 257-95.
Thornton, Rosalind. 1995. Elicited production. McDaniel et al. (Eds.) Methods in the Acquisition of Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Ting, Jen. 1998. Deriving the bei-construction in Mandarin Chinese. Journal of East Asian Linguistic 7: 319-54.
Tsao, F.F. 1988. The functions of Mandarin Gei and Taiwanese Hou in Double Object and Passive Constructions. R.L. Cheng and S.F. Huang (Eds.) The Structure of Taiwanese: A Modern Synthesis. Taipei: Crane Book Co., Ltd.: 165-208.
Tse, John K.P., Tang, Ting-Chi, Shih, Yu-Huei, and Li, Cherry Y. 1991. Chinese Children’s Language Acquisition and Development. NSC 79-0301-H003-23. National Science Council Research Report. Taipei: Dep. of English, Nation Taiwan Normal University.
Tseng, Chi-Fen. 1997. The Acquisition of the Bei-construction in Chinese. M. A. Thesis. Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University.
Turner, E. A. and Rommetveit, R. 1967. Experimental manipulation of the production of the active and passive voice in children’. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 7: 246-250.
van Oostan, Jeanne Hillechiena. 1984. The Nature of Subjects, Topics, and Agents: A Cognitive Explanation. Ph.D. Dissertation. Berkley: University of California.
Wang, Li. 1944. Zhongguo Yufa Lilun (Theory of Modern Chinese). Shanghai: Zhonghua Shuju.
Wasow, T. 1977. Transformations and the lexicon. Culicover, P., Wasow, T., and Akmajian, A. (Eds.) Formal Syntax: 327-61. New York: Academic Press.
Watt, W. 1970. On two hypothesis concerning psycholinguistics. Hayes, J. R. (Ed.) Cognition and the development of language: 137-220. New York: John Wiley.
Wen, X. and Wu, B. 1997. Pro-drop and foreign language acquisition. English Teaching and Learning 23: 65-78.
Wen, Xiaohong and Zhang, Jiuwu. 1987. Chinese passive: transformational or lexical? Linguistic Analysis 17: 200-15.
Weiner, E.J. and Labov, W. 1983. Constraints on the agentless passive. Journal of Linguistics 19:29-58.
Wexler, Kenneth. 1999. Maturation and growth of grammar. William, C. and Tej, K (Eds.) Handbook of Child Language Acquisition. San Diego : Academic Press.

William, C. and Tej, K. 1999. Child language acquisition: introduction, foundations, and overview. William C. and Tej K (Eds.) Handbook of Child Language Acquisition. San Diego: Academic Press.
Yang, M. N. 1988. Language Shift Among the Hakka in JANGHUA and YUENLIN. M. A. Thesis. Taipei: Fu Jen Catholic University.