中文摘要
本研究的主要目的在於探討國中專家導師與新手導師班級經營信念、認知與行動策略的情形，並且比較國中專家導師與新手導師班級經營效果的差異。
本研究採用訪談與觀察的方法，以國中專家導師與新手導師各一名以及69名班級學生為研究對象。本研究經由訪談資料的整理與分析，歸納出國中專家導師與新手導師班級經營的信念、認知、行動策略與其他班級經營相關內容；並且經由分析專家導師與新手導師的班級學生在「國中學生學校生活感受量表」得分上的差異，比較國中專家導師與新手導師的班級經營效果。
本研究所得到的結果如下：
一、 專家導師的班級經營信念傾向於人本主義取向，認為教育的目的是要協助學生發展健全人格；新手導師的班級經營信念同時存有人本主義取向和行為主義取向不一致的教育觀點。
二、 專家導師的班級經營認知具有人本主義取向的觀點，認為要重視情意教育，滿足學生心理需求及提昇學生自我價值感；新手導師的班級經營認知處於以學生為中心或教師為中心的矛盾衝突中。
三、 專家導師的班級經營行動策略以人本主義取向的教育觀點為基礎，能夠因應學生特質與實際情境，靈活運用不同策略。而且專家導師能夠運用生產法則，清楚辨識情境，提出有效的班級經營行動策略；新手導師的班級經營行動策略包含人本主義取向與行為主義取向不一致的教育觀點，而且新手導師雖然具備敘述性知識，但是對於程序性知識並不熟練。
四、 專家導師以積極的態度因應工作壓力與困境，並且堅持自己的教育理念；新手導師則傾向於採取逃避的方式面對工作壓力與困境；或是詢問他人的意見，而直接採用他人的建議。在遇到教學工作的困境時，新手導師往往得不到適當的協助。
五、 專家導師具有立即反應的直覺能力，能夠運用程序性知識，有效分析問題；新手導師傾向注重事件表面現象，無法深入探究問題。
六、 專家導師以自己設定的評價標準對自己的工作表現產生正向的評估結果；新手導師則以外界所設定的評價標準對自己的工作表現產生負向的評估結果，並且失去繼續教學工作的信心。
七、 專家導師能主動掌握與家長的互動關係，積極建立合作關係；新手導師缺乏與家長互動的正確態度與溝通技巧，而未能有效利用家長的協助。
八、 班級學生對於專家導師與新手導師班級經營效果的知覺，在「安排教室環境」、「建立班級規則」、「督導學生活動」和「管理學生行為」四方面具有顯著差異；但是，在「處理班級事務」和「建立和諧溝通管道」兩方面則無差異。
九、 整體而言，專家導師的班級經營信念、認知與行動策略具有一致性，專家導師對於自己的工作表現滿意，並且能夠繼續堅持自己的教育理念；新手導師的班級經營信念、認知與行動策略皆具有矛盾與不一致的部分，而無法連貫。同時，新手導師對於自己的工作表現不滿意，並且對自己的教學能力產生質疑。
最後，本研究根據研究結果，提出對於師資培育機構、國中行政機構、新手教師與未來研究的建議，以供參考。

A Comparative Study of the Belief, Cognition, Act Strategies and the Effects of Classroom Management between the Expert and Novice Teachers in the Junior High School
Shu-Chiung Chou
Abstract
The purposes of this study were: 1.to investigate the belief, cognition, and act strategies of classroom management between the expert and novice teachers in the junior high school; 2.to compare the effects of classroom management between the expert and novice teachers in the junior high school.
The methods used in this study were interview and observation. The subjects of this study were two junior high school teachers, one expert teacher and one novice teacher, and 69 students of their classes. The researcher analyzed the contents obtained from the transcript of the interviews, and summarized the findings of the belief, cognition, act strategies, and other aspects of classroom management between the expert and the novice teachers. Also, The researcher compared the effects of classroom management between the expert and the novice teachers by analyzing the data of the 69 students' scores on '' Students' Perception of School Life Scale''.
The major findings were as follows:
1.The expert teacher' belief of classroom management was apt to the humanistic approach, and the expert teacher considered the goal of education was cultivating the students' good characteristics. Meanwhile, the novice teacher' belief of classroom management consisted of the humanistic and the behavioristic approaches.
2.The expert teacher' cognition about classroom management was from the humanistic perspective, and the expert teacher contented the psychological needs of the students and raised the students' sense of self-worth. The novice teacher' cognition of classroom management was confused with the ideas between the humanistic and the behavioristic approaches.
3.The expert teacher' act strategies of classroom management was based on the humanistic approach. The expert teacher made good use of the act strategies according to the different situations and the differences of students. Besides, the expert teacher used the production rules to distinguish the situations clearly and proposed the effective classroom management act strategies. But the novice teacher' act strategies of classroom management were based on both the humanistic and the behavioristic approaches. Though having the declarative knowledge, the novice teacher was not familiar with the procedural knowledge.
4.The expert teacher confronted the stress and problems of the work in positive attitude, but the novice teacher moved away from the difficulties and the stress of the work. Sometimes, the novice teacher asked others for help and adopted their suggestions, but the novice teacher didn't get appropriate assistance at all times.
5.The expert teacher reacted to problems quickly and instinctively, and used the procedural knowledge to solve the problems. But the novice teacher focused on the surface of the problems, and didn't solve the problems efficiently.
6.The expert teacher had an evaluation criterion of her own and was contented with her works. But the novice teacher assessed herself with others' criteria. She was disappointed in herself and lost her confidence in teaching.
7.The expert teacher actively contacted students' parents, and work in close cooperation with them. But the novice teacher not having correct attitude and good communication skills didn't efficiently get any help from students' parents.
8.Students' perception of the effects of classroom management between the expert and the novice teachers was different in ''arranging classroom environment'', ''establishing rules'', ''having good communication skills'', ''managing problem behaviors'' But there were no difference in ''organizing class procedures'' and ''supervising students' activities''.
9.In summary, the expert teacher' belief, cognition, and act strategies of classroom management was apt to the humanistic approach. The expert teacher was satisfied with her performance and confirmed her belief, cognition, and act strategies of classroom management, but the novice teacher' belief, cognition, and act strategies of classroom management was inconsistent and the novice teacher suspected her teaching abilities.
According to the major findings, suggestions for the normal education, the novice teachers and future researches were offered.

一、中文部分(按姓氏筆劃排列)
丁凡譯（民88）。多感官學習--克服學習困難的教學原則與應用。臺北：遠流出版社。
王俊明（民71）。國小級任教師之領導行為對班級氣氛的影響。國立臺灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
朱文雄（民78）。班級經營。高雄：復文書局。
朱文雄（民82）。建構教室行為管理系統方案之研究：化理論為實務。載於國立屏東師範學院（民82）。班級經營學術研討會議論文彙編。屏東：國立屏東師範學院。
任慶儀（民82）。實施班級經營對國小教師獎懲方式之影響。載於國立屏東師範學院（民82）。班級經營學術研討會議論文彙編。屏東：國立屏東師範學院。
李平譯（民88）。經營多元智慧-開展以學生為中心的教學。臺北：遠流出版社。
李春芳（民82）。班級經營的策略-快樂的一天。載於國立屏東師範學院（民82）。班級經營學術研討會議論文彙編。屏東：國立屏東師範學院。
李彥儀（民79）。台北市國中學導師人格特質、領導行為對班級氣氛之影響研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。
李宜靜（民86）。教學實務與班級經營：一位國中生物教師的個案研究。國立高雄師範大學科學教育研究所碩士論文。
何雲光（民84）。國小教師班級經營策略-俗民誌研究。高雄：高雄市教師研究中心。
吳青蓉（民85）。英語科專家/生手教師教學歷程與教學效果之比較研究。國立臺灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
吳清山（民79）。班級經營。臺北：心理出版社。
吳清山（民85）。提昇班級經營效能有效的途徑。班級經營，1(1)，11-17頁。
岳修平譯（民87）。教學心理學-學習的認知基礎。臺北：遠流出版公司。
金樹人編譯（民78）。教室裡的春天--教室管理的科學與藝術。臺北：張老師出版社。
林清山（民84）。教育心理學-認知取向。臺北：遠流出版公司。
林清財（民79）。我國國民小學教師信念之相關研究。國立政治大學教育研究所博士論文。
林清達（民82）。Z理論在班級經營上的運用。載於國立屏東師範學院（民82）。班級經營學術研討會議論文彙編。屏東：國立屏東師範學院。
單小琳（民77）。國中導師專業倦怠與工作壓力社會支持調適的相關研究。國立政治大學教育研究所博士論文。
單文經（民83）。班級經營策略研究。臺北：師大書苑。
單文經、涂靜如（民82）。台北市四所國民小學學生心目中「有效的常規管理者」的特質。載於國立屏東師範學院（民82）。班級經營學術研討會議論文彙編。屏東：國立屏東師範學院。
孫志麟（民81）。生手如何才能成為專家呢？教師專業表現之探討。師友月刊，3月，21-25。
陳木金（民86）。國民小學教師領導技巧、班級經營策略與教學效能之關係。國立政治大學教育研究所博士論文。
陳碧雲（民84）。初任科學教師班級經營的面貌與成長。國立彰化師範大學科學教育研究所碩士論文。
陳雅莉（民83）。教師教育信念與班級經營成效關係之研究。臺北市立師範學院初等教育研究所碩士論文。
湯仁燕（民82）。國民小學教師教學信念與教學行為關係之研究。國立臺灣師範大學教育研究所碩士論文。
黃敏（民83）。國民小學教師教育信念之研究：以兩名國小教師為例。國立台北師範學院初等教育研究所碩士論文。
詹為淵（民82）。班級經營決策支援系統模式建構之研究。國立高雄師範大學工業教育研究所碩士論文。
簡淑珠、江麗莉（民82）。國小成功、不成功經驗教師與初任教師的班級經營認知與內隱信念之研究。國科會專題研究報告，編號NSC82-0301-H-134-001。
張春興（民85）。教育心理學-三化取向的理論與實踐。臺北：東華書局。
張德銳（民83）。國小教師教室管理評鑑系統之研究。臺北市立師範學院初等教育學刊，3期，35-36頁。
張德銳、簡紅珠、裘友善、高淑芳、張美玉、成虹飛（民85）。發展性教師評鑑系統。臺北：五南書局。
張慧文（民73）。國小師生領導類型、師生關係與班級適應之調查研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。
張瓊方（民85）。國中教師親師互動訓練方案對其親師互動知識與態度影響之研究。國立臺灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
張靜儀（民82）。自然科學教室管理-一個觀察研究報告。載於國立屏東師範學院（民82）。班級經營學術研討會議論文彙編。屏東：國立屏東師範學院。
葉興華（民84）。國小班級管理。臺北：漢文出版社。
楊士賢（民86）。國民小學級任教師班級經營信念與班級經營效能關係之研究。臺北市立師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文。
楊瑞珠（民85）。教師情緒管理。輔導計劃叢書19。教育部發行。
劉榮裕（民84）。國小級任教師班級經營領導模式與學生學業成績相關之研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。
鄭昭明（民86）。認知心理學--理論與實踐。臺北：桂冠圖書公司。
鄭英耀（民83）。國小教師思考與學生行為關係之研究。測驗年刊，41期，221-240頁。
魏延斌（民85）。國中英語教師教學策略之個案研究。國立彰化師範大學英語研究所碩士論文。
戴清江（民73）。我國國民中學學校與家庭溝通聯繫之調查研究。國立臺灣師範大學教育研究所碩士論文。
二、英文部分
Adams, R. S., & Biddle .B. J. (1970). Realities of Teaching:Exploration with Videotape. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Amabile, T. (1992). A study of effects on creativity of commissioned and uncommissioned art works. In Edwards, C.H. (1993). Classroom Discipline and Management. New York: Macmillan.
Ames, C., Khoju, M., & Watkins, T. (1995). Teachers' school-to-home communication and parent involvement: the role of parent perceptions and beliefs. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED383451.
Bauch, P. A. (1984). The impact of teachers' instructional beliefs on their teaching: implication for research and practices. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No: ED252954.
Berliner, D. C. (1986). In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. Educational Researcher, 15, 7, 5-13.
Berliner, D. C., (1988). The Development of Expertise in Pedagogy. Charles W. Haunt Memorial Lecture presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of College for Teacher Education, New Orleans.
Black, S. (1994). Throw away the hickory stick. Executive Educator, 6, 44-47.
Blase, J. J., & Pajak, E. F. (1985). How discipline creates stress for teachers. Canadian School Executive, 4,8-11.
Borich, G.D. (1988). EffectiveTeaching Methods.Columbus,OH:Merrill.
Brandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social CognitiveTtheory. Englewood cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Brousseau, B.A.& Book, C. B. (1988). Teacher beliefs and the culture of teaching. Journal of Teaching Education, Nov-Dec, 33-39.
Butler, J. (1996). Professional Development: Practice as text, reflection as process, and self as locus. Journal of Education, 40, 3, 265-283.
Calderhead, J. (1981). A psychological approach to research on teachers' classroomn decision-making. British Educational Research Journal, 7,51-57.
Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward, and instrisic motivation: A meta-analysis. Review of Education Research, 64, 363-423.
Carter, K., Sabers, D., Cushing, K., Pinnegar, S., & Berliner, D., (1987). Processing and using information about students：A study of expert, novice, and postulant. Teaching & Teacher Education, 3,147-157.
Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P., (1986). Teachers' thought process. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd Edition, 255-296）. New York: Macmillan.
Clarridge, P. B. (1990). Multiple perspectives on the classroom performance of certified and uncertified teachers. Journal of Teacher Education. 41, 4, 15-25.
Cleary, M. J., & Groer, S. (1994) .Inflight decisions of expert and novice teachers. Journal of School Health, 64, 3, 110-114.
Condry, J. (1977). Self initiated versus other initiated learning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 459-477.
Crow, N.A. (1991). Personal perspectives on classroom management. Paper prepared for presentational at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED332959.
Curwin, R. L., & Mendler, A. N. (1989). The Discipline Book: A Complete Guide to School and Classroom Management. Virginia: Reston.
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L. (1981). Effects of externally mediated rewards on instrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105-115.
Denscombe, N. (1985). Classroom Control. London:George Allen & Unwin.
Dykman, B., & Reis,H.(1979).Personality correlates of classroom seating position. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 346-354.
Edwards, C.H. (1993). Classroom Discipline and Management. New York: Macmillan.
Edwards, C.H., (1997). Classroom Discipline and Management.(2nd) New York: Macmillan.
Emmer, E. T., & Aussiker, A. (1990). School and classroom discipline programs: How well do they work? In O. Moles, ed. Student Disciplines Strategies: Research and Practice. Allbany, New York: Suny Press.
Emmer, E.T., Evertson, C .M., Clements, B. S., & Worsham, M. E.(1996). Classroom Management for Secondary Teachers. (4nd)Allyn and Bacon.
Fager, J. J., (1992). Characteristics of expertise in teaching: differences in levels of expert teachers in solving classroom management problems. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No: ED9237660.
Farr, R.C., & Tone, B. (1994). Portfolio and performance assessment: helping students evaluate their progress as readers and writers. In Growing Up to Meet Your Needs. New York: Harcourt Brace College.
Fogarty, J.L., Wang, M. C. & Creek, R. (1983). A descriptive study of experienced and novice teachers' interactive instructional thoughts and actions. Journal of Educational Research, 77, 1, 22-32.
Freeman, J. L., Cunningham, J. A., & Krismer, K. (1992). Inferred values and the reverse-incentive effect in induced compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 357-368.
Frey, K. M. (1987). Administrative implications of self-reporters instructional beliefs and practices of secondary school teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International No.AAC87-06131.
Glaser, R.,&Chi, M. T. H.(1988). Overview. In M.T.H.Chi, R. Glaser, & M.J.Farr(Eds.),The Nature of Expertise. Hillsdale,NJ,Lawwrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gonzalez, L. E., & Carter, K. (1993). Beginning Teachers' Knowledge of Classroom Events. Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 3, 223-232.
Gonzalez, L. E., & Carter, K., (1996). Correspondence in Cooperating Teacher' Interpretations of Classroom Events. Teaching & Teacher Education, 2, 1, 39-47.
Good, T. L., & Brophy, J.E. (1986). Educational Psychology. (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.
Good, T. L., & Brophy, J.E. (1994). Looking in Classrooms (6th ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
Greenberg,P.(1989). Parents as partners in young children's development and education: A new American fad? Why does it matter? Young Children, 44, 4, 61-75.
Han van der Mars, E. W. Vogler, P.W. Darst, & B. Cusimano (1995). Novice and expert physical education teachers: Maybe they think and decide differently…But do they behave differently? Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 340-347.
Harackiewicz, J. M., & Manderlink, G., (1994). A process analysis of the effects of performance contingent rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 531-551.
Hashweh, M. Z. (1996). Effect of science teachers' epistemological beliefs in teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 1, 47-63.
Henderson, A. (1988). Parents are a school's best friends. Phi Delta Kappan, 149-153.
Hoy, W. & Rees, R. (1977). The bureaucratic socialization of student teacher. Journal of Teacher Education, 28, 1, 23-26.
Jones, V. F., & Jones, L.S (1990). Comprehensive Classroom Management: Motivating and managing Students. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kohn, A., (1993). Punished by Rewards. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Lasley, T. J. (1980). Preservice teacher belief about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 31, 4, 38-41.
Lefrancois, G. R., (1997). Psychology for Teaching (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Company.
Leinhardt, G., & Smith, D.,(1985). Expertise in mathematics instruction: Subject matter knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 247-271.
Lepper, M. R. (1983). Extrinsic reward and intrinsic motivation. In Levine, J. m., & Wang M. C. (Eds.), Teacher and Student Perceptions: Implications for Learning. Hinsdale, NJ: Earlbaum Cpmpany
Lepper, M., & Green, D., Eds. (1978). The Hidden Cost of Reward: New Perspectives on the Psychology of Human Motivation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Levin, J., & Nolan, J. F. (1991). Principles of Classroom Management: A Hierarchical Approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Livingston C. & Borko H., (1989). Expert-novice differences in teaching: A cognitive analysis and implications for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, July-August. 36-43.
Manning, B. H., & Payne, B. D., (1989). A cognitive self-direction model for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, May-June, 27-32.
Martin, J. M. (1992). Teachers' communication skills: The key to successful parent involvement. Eric Document Reproduction Service No.ED348706.
Merrett, F., & Wheldall, K. (1993). How do teachers learn to manage classroon behavior? A study of teachers' opinions about their initial management. Educational Studies, 19, 91-106.
Mitchell, J. & Williams, S. E. (1993). Expert/novice Difference in Teaching with Technology. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Eric Document Reproduction Service No.ED364192.
Ndon, T.U. (1995). Family and consumer science teachers attitude and practices concerning parent involvement in the educational process. Iowa State University. DAI-A,56(02),478.
Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19, 4, 317-328.
Parker, W. C., & Gehrke, N. J., (1986). Learning activities and teachers' decisionmaking: Some grounded hypotheses. American Educational Research Journal. 23, 227-242.
Peterson, P. L., & Comeaux, M. A., (1987). Teachers' schemata for classroom events: The mental scaffolding of teachers' thinking during classroom instruction. Teacher & Teaching Education, 3, 319-331.
Rosenfield, P., Lambert, N., & Black, H. (1985). Desk arrangement effects on pupil classroom behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 101-108.
Ryan, R. M., & Stiller, J. (1991). The social contexts of internalization: Parent and teacher influences on autonomy, motivation and learning. Advances on Motivation and Achievement, 7, 15, 115-149.
Shulman, L. S.(1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform., Harvard Educational Review.57, 1-22.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Reasearcher,15, 2, 4-14.
Siedntop, D., & Eldar, E., (1989). Expertise, experience and effectiveness. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8, 254-260.
Strahan,B.D.(1989) How experienced and novice teachers frame their views of instruction: An analysis of semantic ordered trees. Teaching & Teacher Education, 5, 1, 53-67.
Tartwijk, J. van, Brekelmans, M., Wubbels, Th., Fisher, D. L., & Fraser, B. J. (1998). Students' perceptions of teacher interpersonal style: The front of the classroom as the teachers' stage. Teacher & Teaching Education, 14, 6, 607-617.
Tobin, K., Tippins, D. J. & Gallard, A. J. (1994). Research on instructional strategies for teaching science. In Gagel, D. L. (Ed) Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning. New York: Macmillan.
Veenman, S. A.M., (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 54, 143-178.
Wallace, J. (1997). Competency standards for beginning teaching progress possibilities and pointers for practice. Paper presented at the International Conference on Evaluation Instruments of Science Teaching Competencies at the national Kaohsiung Normal University.
Wang,M.C.,& Haertel,G.D.,& Walberg,H.J.(1993).Toward a know-ledge base for school learning. Review of Educational Research, 63, 249-294.
Weinstein, C. (1979). The physical environment of the school: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 49, 577-610.
Westerman D.A., (1991). Expert and novice teacher decision making. Journal of Teacher Education,42, 4, 292-305.
Williams, D.L., & Chavkin, N. F. (1988). Critical issues in teacher training for parent involvement, Educational Horizons, 66, 2, 87-89.
Woolfolk, A.E., Rosoff, B., & Hoy, W.K.(1990).Teachers' sense of efficacy and their beliefs about managing students. Teaching & Teacher Education, 62, 2, 137-148.
Wubbels, Th., Creton, H. A. & Hermans, J. J.(1993). Teacher Education Programs. In Th. Wubbels, & J. Levy. (Eds.), Do you know what you look like？Interpersonal relations in education (pp.146-161). London: The Falmer Press.
Zeitz, C. M. (1994) Expert-novice differences in memory, abstraction, and reasoning in domain of literature. Cognition and Instruction, 12, 4, 277-312.