根據動態系統概念的研究取向，認為人的動作發展乃是環境、動作者本身、以及工作等三種限制交互作用的結果，而在生態心理學的研究中環境賦使的概念亦說明了環境變項與動作者間交互作用的影響效應，在本研究中，以上述取向為基礎並透過生態的工作分析方式，探討環境限制對接球動作表現的影響，以及在動作發展過程中年齡差異與性別差異的效應。本研究主要探討的問題是：(1)不同環境限制對動作表現的影響是否足以提供篩測的作用，以標識出動作者之最佳發展層次？(2)接球動作表現隨年齡的增加之發展趨勢以及在不同性別間之差異為何？(3)接球動作表現的性別差異在不同年齡層之現象為何？共有96名國小與幼稚園學童參與本實驗，並依其年齡(6、8、10、12歲四個等級)與性別區分為 8組，實驗期間每位實驗參加者對拋自5公尺遠處之四種不同尺寸大小的球(7、17、27、37公分，重量約為500公克)分別做5次接球的動作，所有接球動作均經由錄影拍攝與評分分析步驟，之後應用相依樣本單因子變異數分析(one-way ANOVA)對環境限制因素進行統計考驗，並以獨立樣二因子變異數分析(two-way ANOVA)對年齡與性別因子做統計考驗。結果發現：(1)不同的環境限制會對動作者造成程度不同的影響，其可用以篩測個體發展過程中之動作表現，(2)隨著年齡的增長，動作發展呈現階段而非線性的改變歷程，(3)性別差異的效異並不明顯，僅在部分年齡組別中發生，但綜合年齡與性別因子的效應則可發現其隨著年齡的增長在改變的時序上男女呈現不同的模式。

According to the dynamical systems’ viewpoint, which considers the motor development is the result of the interaction among the constraints of individual, environment and task. Recently, the ecological psychologist also use the concept of affordance to explain the relationship between environment and individuals. In this study, the viewpoint of dynamical systems and the concept of ecological task analysis were based to investigate the age-differences and gender-differences. Three research questions were asked in this study: 1) Can the effect of the environment constraints provide the screening function to mark the best developmental level? 2) With the increasing of age, what was the developmental tendency of the catching performances under different sexes? 3) What were the gender differences of catching performances under different ages? In this study, ninety-six children served as participants. According the age and gender variables, they were divided into eight group. The participants were filmed five catching of four sizes of ball (diameter 7, 17, 27, 37 cm; weight 500 g). One way repeated measure ANOVA and two way ANOVA revealed that 1) The different environmental constraints would make some different levels of effects to the catching pattern, and it can provide the screening function. 2) There was age-differences existed, and the changes of catching pattern would be nonlinear and the difference depended on sexes. 3) Under different sexes, the speed of motor development weren't the same, and there were no significant gender-differences in the some age level.

中文部份
卓俊伶。(1996)。特殊體育教學之工作分析應用。一九九六年國際特殊
體育研討會報告書，頁96-101。臺北市：國立臺灣師範大學學校體育
研究與發展中心。
林清山。(1992)。心理與教育統計學。台北市：東華書局。
張春興。(1989)。心理學辭典。台北市：東華書局。
楊梓楣與卓俊伶。(1998a)。接球動作型式的環境限制變項探討。體育學
報第，第二十五輯，頁269-278。
楊梓楣與卓俊伶。(1998b)。5-12歲女童接球動作發展的年齡差異。體育
學報，第二十六輯，頁81-88。
英文部份
Bernstein, N. (1967). The coordination and regulation of
movements. London: Pergamon Press.
Bruce, R. D. (1966). The effects of variation in ball
trajectory upon the catching performance of elementary
school children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Burton, A. W., & Davis W. E. (1992). Optimizing the involvement
and performance of children with physical impairments in
movement activities. Pediatric Exercise Science, 4, 236-
248.
Burton, A. W., & Davis W. E. (1996). Ecological task analysis :
Utilizing intrinsic measures in research and practice.
Human Movement Science, 15, 285-314.
Clark, J., & Phillips, S. (1985). A developmental sequence of
the standing long jump. In J. Clark & J. Hmphrey (Eds.),
Motor development: Current selected research (pp. 73-85).
Princeton, NJ: Princeton.
Davis, W. E., & Burton, A. W. (1991). Ecological task analysis:
Translating movement behavior theory into practice. Adapted
Physical Activity Quarterly, 6, 154-177.
Dunn, J., & Fait, H. (1989). Special physical education:
Adapted, individualized, developmental (6th ed.) Dubuque,
IA: Wm. C. Brown.
DuRandt, R. (1985). Ball catching proficiency among 4-, 6-, and
8-year old girls. In J. Clark & J. Humphrey (Eds.), Motor
development: Current selected research (pp. 35-44).
Princeton, NJ: Princeton.
Fischman, M. G., Moore, J. B., & Steele, K.H. (1992).
Children's one-hand catching as a function of age, gender,
and ball location. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport, 63, 349-355.
Gabbard, C. P. (1992). Lifelong Motor Development(2nd ed.).
Chicago: Brown & Benchmark.
Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (1998). Understanding motor
development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults (4th
ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual
systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. E. Shaw
and J. Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting, and knowing:
Toward an ecological psychology (pp. 67-82). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Gibson, J.J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual
perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Goodman, D., & Kelso, J. A. S. (1980). Are movements prepared
in parts? Not under compatible (naturalized) conditions.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 2, 73-75.
Greene, P. H. (1972). Problems of organization of motor
systems. In R. Rosen & F. M. Snell (Eds.), Progress in
theoretical biology (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
Halverson, L. E. (1971). The significance of motor development.
In G. Engstrom (Ed.) The significance of the young child’s
motor development (pp. 17-33). Washington, D. C.: National
Association for the Education of Young Children.
Halverson, L. E., Roberton, M. A., & Harper, C. (1973). Current
research in motor development. Journal of Research and
Development in Education, 6, 56-70.
Harper, C. J. (1979). Learning to observe children's motor
development. Part III: Observing children's motor
development in the gymnasium. Paper presented to the
national convention of the American Alliance for Health,
Physical Education, and Recreation, New Orleans.
Hauberstricker, J., Branta, C., & Seefeldt, V. (1983).
Preliminary validation of developmental sequences for
throwing and catching. East Lansing, Mich.: Paper presented
at the annual conference of the North American Society for
the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity.
Haywood, K. M. (1993). Life span motor development (2nd ed.).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Herkowitz, J. (1978). Developmental task analysis: The design
of movement experiences and evaluation of motor development
status. In M. V. Ridenour (Ed.), Motor development: Issues
and application(pp. 139-164). Princeton, NJ: Princeton.
Kelso, J. A. S., & Schoner, G. (1988). Self-organization of
coordinative movement patterns. Human Movement Science, 7,
27-46.
Konczak, J. (1990). Toward an ecological theory of motor
development: the relevance of the Gibsonian approach to
vision for motor development research. In J. E. Clark & J.
H. Humphrey (Eds.), Advances in motor development research
(Vol 3, pp. 201-224). New York: AMS Press.
Kugler, P. N., Kelso, J. A. S., & Turvey, M. T. (1980). On the
concept of coordinative structures as dissipative
structures: I. Theoretical lines of convergence. In G. E.
Stelmach & J. Requin (Eds.), Tutorials in motor behavior
(pp. 3-47). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Kugler, P. N., Kelso, J. A. S., & Turvey, M. T. (1982). On the
control and coordination of naturally developing systems.
In J. A. S. Kelso & J. E. Clark (Eds.), The development of
movement control and coordination (pp. 5-78). New York:
Wiley and Sons.
Lefebvre, C., & Reid, G. (1998). Prediction in ball catching by
children with and without a developmental coordination
disorder. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 15, 299-315.
Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex
differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Malina, R. M. (1984). Physical growth and maturation. In J. R.
Thomas (Ed.), Motor development during childhood and
adolescence (pp. 2-26). Minneapolis: Burgess.
McConnell, A. & Wade, G. (1990). Effects of lateral ball
location, grade, and sex on catching. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 70, 59-66.
Newell, K. M. (1986). Constraints on the development of
coordination. In M. G. Wade & H. T. A. Whiting (Eds.),
Motor development in children: Aspects of coordination and
control (pp. 341-361). Amsterdam: Martius Nijhoff.
Painter, M. A. (1994). Developmental sequences for hopping as
assessment instruments : A generalized analysis. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65, 1-10.
Payne, V. G., & Isaacs, L. D. (1995). Human motor development:
A lifespan approach (3rd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
Poe, A. (1976). Description of the movement characteristics of
two year old children performing the jump and reach.
Research Quarterly, 47, 409-416.
Reed, E. S. (1982). An outline of a theory of action systems.
Journal of Motor Behavior, 14, 98-134.
Roberton, M. A. (1977). Stability of stage categorizations
across trials: Implications for the "stage theory" of
overarm throw development. Journal of Human Movement
Studies,3 ,49-59.
Roberton, M. A. (1978). Longitudinal evidence for developmental
stages in the forceful overarm throw. Journal of Human
Movement Studies, 4, 167-175.
Rpberton, M. A., & Halverson, L. E. (1984). Developing children-
their changing movement. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
Rose, D. J (1997). A multilevel approach to the study of motor
control and learning. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Schmidt, R. A. (1988). Motor control and learning: A behavioral
emphases (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Seefeldt, V. (1972). Developmental sequence of catching skill.
Houston: Paper presented at the annual convention of the
American Association for Health, Physical Education, and
Recreation.
Seefeldt, V., & Haubenstricker, J. (1982). Pattern, phases, or
stages: An analytical model for the study of developmental
movement. In J. A. S. Kelso & J. E. Clark (Eds.), The
development of movement control and co-ordination. Mew
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sherrill, C. (1986). Adapted physical education and recreation:
A multidisciplinary approach (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C.
Brown.
Smead, V. C. (1977). Ability training and task analysis in
diagnostic/prescriptive teaching. The Journal of Special
Education, 11, 113-125.
Smoll, F. L., & Schutz, R. W. (1990). Quantifying gender
differences in physical performance: A developmental
perspective. Developmental Psychology, 26, 360-369.
Strohmeyer, H. S., Williams, K., & Schaub-George, D. (1991).
Development sequences for catching a small ball: A
prelongitudinal screening. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport, 62, 257-266.
Thelen, E. (1986). Development of coordinated movement:
Implications for early human development. In M. G. Wade &
H. T. A. Whiting (Eds.), Motor development in children:
Aspects of coordination and control. Amsterdam: Martius
Nijhoff.
Thelen, E., & Ulrich, B. D. (1991). Hidden skills: A dynamical
systems analysis of treadmill stepping during the first
year. Monographs of Society for Research in child
Development, 56(1), serial #223.
Thelen, E., & Ulrich, B. D., & Jensen, J. L. (1989). The
developmental origins of locomotion. In M. H. Woollacott &
A. Shumway-Cook (Eds.), Development of pasture and gait
across the life span. (pp. 25-47). Columbia, SC: University
of South Carolina Press.
Thomas, J. R., & French, K. E. (1985). Gender differences
across age in motor performance: A meta-analysis.
Psychological Bulletin, 98, 260-282.
Turvey, M. T. (1977). Preliminaries to a theory of action with
reference to vision. In R. Shaw & J. Bransford (Eds.),
perceiving, acting, and knowing (pp. 211-265). Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Wehman, P., & Schleien, S. (1981). Leisure programs for
handicapped persons. Atstin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Wicksstom, R. L. (1983). Fundamental motor patterns.
Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.