本研究的目的在探討肌酸與醣類增補，對於優秀西式划船選手在激烈訓練階段有氧與無氧運動表現的影響。17位受試者自願參與本實驗並隨機分成三組：肌酸＋醣類組（0.3 g•kg-1•day-1肌酸與4•50 g•day-1葡萄糖，n=6）、肌酸組（0.3 g•kg-1•day-1肌酸與4•50 g•day-1安慰劑，n=5）與安慰劑組（0.3 g•kg-1•day-1安慰劑與4•50 g•day-1安慰劑，n=6）。在連續5天增補肌酸或安慰劑前後，受試者須完成遞增負荷最大划船運動測驗、2×30秒溫蓋特測驗以及模擬2000公尺划船計時測驗。本研究以乳酸閾值（LT）與個體無氧閾值（IAT）作為有氧能力的指標，而溫蓋特測驗則視為無氧運動表現的指標。利用生物電阻法分析受試者在增補前後的身體組成變化，並於坐姿休息時，持續測量心跳率變異性。結果顯示僅肌酸＋醣類組在增補後明顯地增加體重，但肌酸＋醣類組與肌酸組在增補後均明顯地增加去脂體重與細胞內液。三組受試者的最大攝氧量、LT與IAT在增補後並未有明顯改變，但運動至衰竭的時間則因肌酸的增補而延長。肌酸＋醣類組與肌酸組在增補後均明顯地增進溫蓋特測驗的表現，但三組受試者之間在增補前後並無明顯差異。2000公尺划船測驗的前500公尺與後500公尺的分段時間與分段平均功率，則受到肌酸的增補而明顯地獲得改善。肌酸組的坐姿高頻絕對功率在5天的增補後明顯地降低。本研究結果顯示對於優秀划船選手而言，在激烈訓練課程中，不論是否配合葡萄糖的攝取，肌酸的增補可以促進間歇性高強度運動與2000公尺划船運動的運動表現。

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of oral creatine (Cr) and carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation on aerobic and anaerobic performance in elite rowers during intense training program. Seventeen subjects were voluntary to participate in this study and randomly assigned to three groups: CrCG (0.3 g•kg-1•day-1 creatine plus 4•50 g•day-1 glucose, n=6), CrG (0.3 g•kg-1•day-1 creatine plus 4•50 g•day-1 placebo, n=5), and PlG (0.3 g•kg-1•day-1 placebo plus 4•50 g•day-1 placebo, n=6). Before and after a 5-day load of creatine or placebo, subjects performed the incremental rowing exercise test, 2x30s Wingate’s test and simulated 2000 m rowing time trial. Lactate threshold (LT) and individual anaerobic threshold (IAT) were determined to refer as the aerobic capacity, as well as the Wingate’s test for the anaerobic performance. Body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance analyzer and heart rate variability was measured continuously in sited position. There was significantly increased body weight only in CrCG, however, the fat-free mass and intercellular water in CrCG and CrG were significantly increased after supplementation. No significant changes were found on the VO2max, LT and IAT in three groups after supplementation, but the time to exhaustion was increased by creatine ingestion. The performances of Wingate’s test were improved in CrCG and CrG after supplementation, but there were no significant differences among three groups. The 500-m split times and average powers at the first and last 500 m of the 2000 m rowing test were significantly improved by creatine supplementation. The HF (high frequency) power in sited position in CrG was significantly decreased after a 5-day load. These results indicate that the intermittent high-intensity exercise and the 2000 m rowing performance could be improved by creatine supplementation, whether combined with glucose ingestion or not, during heavy training program in the elite rowers.

行政院衛生署（1998a）。台灣地區食品營養成分資料庫。台北市：作者。

行政院衛生署（1998b）。常見食品營養圖鑑。台北市：作者。

Akselrod, S., Gordon, D., Ubel, F. A., Shannon, D. C., Barger, A. C., & Cohen, R. J. (1981). Power spectral analysis of heart rate fluctuation: A quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascular control. Science, 213, 220-223.

Aubert, A. E., Seps, B., & Beckers, F. (2003). Heart rate variability in athletes. Sports Medicine, 33 (12), 889-919.

Balsom, P. D., Harridge, S. D. R., Sderlund, K., Sjdin, B., & Ekblom, B. (1993). Creatine supplementation per se does not enhance endurance exercise performance. Acta Physiological Scandinavia, 149 (4), 521-523.

Balsom, P. D., Sderlund, K., Sjdin, B., & Ekblom, B. (1995). Skeletal muscle metabolism during short duration high-intensity exercise: influence of creatine supplementation. Acta Physiological Scandinavia, 154 (3), 303-310.

Barton-Davis, E. R., Shoturma, D. I., & Sweeney, H. L. (1999). Contribution of satellite cells to IGF-I induced hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. Acta Physiological Scandinavia, 167 (4), 301-305.

Beaver, W. L., Wasserman, K., & Whipp, B. J. (1985). Improved detection of lactate threshold during exercise using a log-log transformation. Journal of Applied Physiology, 59 (6), 1936-1940.

Bellinger, B. M., Bold, A., Wilson, G. R., Noakes, T. D., & Myburgh, K. H. (2000). Oral creatine supplementation decreases plasma markers of adenine nucleotide degradation during a 1-h cycle test. Acta Physiological Scandinavia, 170 (3), 217-224.

Beneke, R., Leithuser, R. M., & Htler, M. (2001). Dependence of the maximal lactate steady state on the motor pattern of exercise. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 35, 192-196.

Biwer, C. J., Jensen, R. L., Schmidt, W. D., & Watts, P. B. (2003). The effect of creatine on treadmill running with high-intensity intervals. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17 (3), 439-445.

Branch, J. D. (2003). Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13, 198-226.

Brudnak, M. A. (2004). Creatine: Are benefits worth the risk? Toxicology Letters, 150 (1), 123-130.

Casey, A., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Howell, S., Hultman, E., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1996). Creatine ingestion favorably affects performance and muscle metabolism during maximal exercise in humans. American Journal of Physiology, 271 (Endocrinol. Metab. 34), E31-E37.

Chwalbiska-Moneta, J. (2003). Effect of creatine supplementation on aerobic performance and anaerobic capacity in elite rowers in the course of endurance training. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13 (2), 173-183.

Constantin-Teodosou, D., Greenhaff, P. L., Gardiner, S. M., Randall, M. D., March, J. E., & Bennett, T. (1995). Attenuation by creatine of myocardial metabolic stress in Brattleboro rats caused by chronic inhibition of nitric oxide synthase. British Journal of Pharmacology, 116, 3288-3292.

Cooke, W. H., Grandjean, P. W., & Barnes, W. S. (1995). Effect of oral creatine supplementation on power output and fatigue during bicycle ergometer. Journal of Applied Physiology, 78 (2), 670-673.

Cottrell, G. T., Coast, J. R., & Herb, R. A. (2002). Effect of recovery interval on multiple-bout sprint cycling performance after acute creatine supplementation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 16 (1), 109-116.

Cox, G., Mujika, I., Tumilty, D., & Burke, L. (2002). Acute creatine supplementation and performance during a field test simulating match play in elite female soccer players. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 12 (1), 33-46.

Dangott, B., Schultz, E., & Mozdziak, P. E. (2000). Dietary creatine monohydrate supplementation increases satellite cell mitotic activity during compensatory hypertrophy. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 21 (1), 13-16.

Delecluse, C., Diels, R., & Goris, M. (2003). Effect of creatine supplementation on intermittent sprint running performance in highly trained athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17 (3), 446-454.

Earnest, C. P., Snell, P. G., Rodriguez, R., Almada, A. L., & Mitchell, T. L. (1995). The effect of creatine monohydrate ingestion on anaerobic power indices, muscular strength and body composition. Acta Physiological Scandinavia, 153 (2), 207-209.

Engelhardt, M., Neumann, G., Berbalk, A., & Reuter, I. (1998). Creatine supplementation in endurance sports. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30 (7), 1123-1129.

Febbraio, M. A., Flanagan, T. R., Snow, R. J., & Zhao, S. (1995). Effect of creatine supplementation on intramuscular TCr, metabolism and performance during intermittent, supramaximal exercise in humans. Acta Physiological Scandinavia, 155 (4), 387-395.

Francaux, M., & Poortmans, J. R. (1999). Effects of training and creatine supplement on muscle strength and body mass. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 80 (2), 165-168.

Gordon, A., Hultman, E., Kaijser, L., Kristjansson, S., Rolf, C. J., Nyquist, O., & Sylvn, C. (1995). Creatine supplementation in chronic heart failure increases skeletal muscle creatine phosphate and muscle performance. Cardiovascular Research, 30, 413-418.

Green, A. L., Hultman, E., Macdonald, I. A., Sewell, D. A., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1996a). Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans. American Journal of Physiology, 271 (Endocrinol. Metab. 34), E821-E826.

Green, A. L., Simpson, E. J., Littlewood, J. J., Macdonald, I. A., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1996b). Carbohydrate ingestion augments creatine retention during creatine feeding in humans. Acta Physiologiacl Scandinavia, 158 (2), 195-202.

Greenhaff, P. L., Bodin, K., Harris, R. C., Hultman, E., Jones, D. A., McIntyre, D. B., Sderlund, K., & Turner, D. L. (1993a). The influence of oral creatine supplementation on muscle phosphocreatine resynthesis following intense contraction in man. Journal of Physiology, 467, 75P.

Greenhaff, P. L., Casey, A., Short, A. H., Harris, R., Sderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1993b). Influence of oral creatine supplementation of muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in man. Clinical Science, 84 (5), 565-571.

Greenhaff, P. L., Bodin, K., Sderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1994). Effect of oral creatine supplementation on skeletal muscle phosphocreatine resynthesis. American Journal of Physiology, 266 (Endocrinol. Metab. 29), E725-E730.

Harris, R. C., Sderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1992). Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clinical Science, 83 (3), 367-374.

Harris, R. C., Viru, M., Greenhaff, P. L., & Hultman, E. (1993). The effect of oral creatine supplementation on running performance during maximal short term exercise in man. Journal of Physiology, 467, 74P.

Hussinger, D., Roth, E., Lang, F., & Gerok, W. (1993). Cellular hydration status: An important determinant of protein catabolism in health and disease. Lancet, 341 (8856), 1330-1332.

Hespel, P., Op’t Eijnde, B., Derave, W., & Richter, E. A. (2001a). Creatine supplementation: Exploring the role of the creatine kinase/ phosphocreatine system in human muscle. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 26 (Suppl.), S79-S102.

Hespel, P., Op’t Eijnde, B., Van Leemputte, M., Urs, B., Greenhaff, P. L., Labarque, V., Dymarkowski, S., Van Hecke, P., & Richter, E. A. (2001b). Oral creatine supplementation facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the expression of muscle myogenic factors in humans. Journal of Physiology, 536 (2), 625-633.

Horn, M., Remkes, H., Dienesch, C., Hu, K., Ertl, G., & Neubauer, S. (1999). Chronic high-dose creatine feeding does not attenuate left ventricular remodeling in rat hearts post-myocardial infarction. Cardiovascular Research, 43 (1), 117-124.

Hultman, E., Sderlund, K., Timmons, J. A., Cederblad, G., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1996). Muscle creatine loading in men. Journal of Applied Physiology, 81 (1), 232-237.

Izquierdo, M., Ibaez, J., Gonzlez-Badillo, J. J., & Gorostiaga, E. M. (2002). Effects of creatine supplementation on muscle power, endurance, and sprint performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34 (2), 332-343.

Jones, A. M., Carter, H., Pringle, J. S. M., & Campbell, I. T. (2002). Effect of creatine supplementation on oxygen uptake kinetics during submaximal cycle exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 92, 2571-2577.

Kim, I. S., Wakabayashi, K., Kurosaka, R., Yamaizumi, Z., Jinno, F., Koyota, S., Tada, A., Nukaya, H., Takahashi, M., & Sugimura, T. (1994). Isolation and identification of a new mutagen, 2-amino-4-hydroxy-methyl-3, 8-dimethylimidazo [4, 5-f] quinoxaline (4-CH2OH-8-MeIQx), from beef extract. Carcinogenesis, 15 (1), 21-26.

Kinugasa, R., Akima, H., Ota, A., Ohta, A., Sugiura, K., & Kuno, S. (2004). Short-term creatine supplementation does not improve muscle activation or sprint performance in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 91 (2-3), 230-237.

Koshy, K. M., Griswold, E., & Schneeberger, E. E. (1999). Interstitial nephritis in a patient taking creatine. The New England Journal of Medicine, 340 (10), 814-815.

Kreider, R. B., Ferreira, M., Wilson, M., Grindstaff, P., Plisk, S., Reinardy, J., Cantler, E., & Almada, A. L. (1998). Effects of creatine supplementation on body composition, strength, and sprint performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30 (1), 73-82.

Kristensen, C. A., Askenasy, N., Jain, R. K., & Koretsky, A. P. (1999). Creatine and cyclocreatine treatment of human colon adenocarcinoma xenografts: 31P and 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopic studies. British Journal of Cancer, 79 (2), 278-285.

Lawrence, S. R., Preen, D. B., Dawson, B. T., Beilby, J., Goodman, C., & Cable, N. T. (1997). The effect of oral creatine supplementation on maximal exercise performance in competitive rowers. Sports Medicine, Training and Rehabilitation, 7, 243-253.

Lehmkuhl, M. Malone, M., Justice, B., Trone, G., Pistilli, E., Vinci, D., Haff, E. E., Kilgore, J. L., & Haff, G. C. (2003). The effects of 8 weeks of creatine monohydrate and glutamine supplementation on body composition and performance measures. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17 (3), 425-438.

Maestu, J., & Jurimae, J. (2000). Anthropometrical and physiological factors of rowing performance: a review [Abstract]. Acta Kinesiologiae Universitatis Tartuensis, 5, 130-150.

Matsumoto, T., Miyawaki, T., Ue, H., Kanda, T., Zenji, C., & Moritani, T. (1999). Autonomic responsiveness to acute cold exposure in obese and non-obese young women. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 23 (8), 793-800.

Mayes, P. A. (2000). The respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation. In R. K. Murray, D. K., Granner, P. A. Mayes, & V. W. Rodwell (Eds.). Harper’s Biochemistry (25th ed., pp. 148). Connecticut: Appleton & Lange.

McArdle, W. D., Katch, F. I., & Katch, V. L. (2001). Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance (5th ed., pp.583-588). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

McClung, J. M., Hand, G. A., Davix, J. M., & Carson, J. A. (2003). Effect of creatine supplementation on cardiac muscle of exercise-stressed rats. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 89 (1), 26-33.

McKenna, M. J., Morton, J., Selig, S. E., & Snow, R. J. (1999). Creatine supplementation increases muscle total creatine but not maximal intermittent exercise performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 87 (6), 2244-2252.

McNaughton, L. R., Dalton, B., & Tarr, J. (1998). The effects of creatine supplementation on high-intensity exercise performance in elite performers. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 78 (3), 236-240.

Mesa, J. L. M., Ruiz, J. R., Gonzlez-Gross, M. M., Sinz, . G., & Garzn, M. J. C. (2003). Oral creatine supplementation and skeletal muscle metabolism in physical exercise. Sports Medicine, 32 (14), 903-944.

Mihic, S. A., Macdonald, J. R., McKenzie, S., & Tarnopolsky, M. A. (2000). Acute creatine loading increases fat-free mass, but does not affect blood pressure, plasma creatinine, or CK activity in men and women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32 (2), 291-296.

Nakamura, Y., Yamamoto, Y., & Muraoka, I. (1993). Autonomic control of heart rate during physical exercise and fractal dimension of heart rate variability. Journal of Applied Physiology, 74 (2), 875-881.

Nash, S. R., Giros, B., Kingsmore, S. F., Rochelle, J. M., Suter, S. T., Gregor, P., Seldin, M. F., & Caron, M. G. (1994). Cloning, pharmacological characterization, and genomic localization of the human creatine transporter. Receptors and Channels, 2 (2), 165-174.

Nelson, A. G., Arnall, D. A., Kokkonen, J., Day, R., & Evans, J. (2001). Muscle glycogen supercompensation is enhanced by prior creatine supplementation. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33 (7), 1096-1100.

Nelson, A. G., Day, R., Glickman-Weiss, E. L., Hegsted, M., Kokkonen, J., & Sampson, B. (2000). Creatine supplementation alters the response to a graded cycle ergometer test. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 83 (1), 89-94.

Op’t Eijnde, B., & Hespel, P. (2001). Short-term creatine supplementation does not alter the hormonal response to resistance training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33 (3), 449-453.

Pagani, M., Lombardi, F., Guzzetti, S., Rimoldi, O., Furlan, R., Pizzinelli, P., Sandrone, G., Malfatto, G., Dell‘Orto, S., Piccaluga, E., Turiel, M., Baselli, G., Cerutti, S., & Malliani, A. (1986). Power spectral analysis of heart rate and artial pressure variabilities as a marker of sympatho-vagal interaction in man and conscious dog. Circulation Research, 59, 178-193.

Pomeranz, B., Macaulay, R. J. B., Caudill, M. A., Kuts, I., Adam, D., Gordon, D., Kilborn, K. M., Barger, A. C., Shannon, D. C., Cohen, R. J., & Benson, H. (1985). Assessment of autonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysis. American Journal of Physiology, 248, H151-H153.

Poortmans, J. R., Auquier, H., Renaut, V., Durussel, A., Saugy, M., & Brisson, G. R. (1997). Effect of short-term creatine supplementation on renal responses in men. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 76 (6), 566-567.

Poortmans, J. R., & Francaux, M. (1999). Long-term oral creatine supplementation does not impair renal function in healthy athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31 (8), 1108-1110.

Poortmans, J. R., & Francaux, M. (2000). Adverse effects of creatine supplementation: fact or fiction? Sports Medicine, 30 (3), 155-170.

Pritchard, N. R., & Kalra, P.A. (1998). Renal dysfunction accompanying oral creatine supplements. Lancet, 351 (9111), 1252-1253.

Rico-Sanz, J. (2000). Creatine reduces human muscle PCr and pH decrements and Pi accumulation during low-intensity exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 88 (4), 1181-1191.

Rico-Sanz, J., & Marco, M. T. M. (2000). Creatine enhances oxygen uptake and performance during alternating intensity exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32 (2), 379-385.

Riechman, S. E., Zoeller, R. F., Balasekaran, G., Goss, F. L., & Robertson, R. J. (2002). Prediction of 2000 m indoor rowing performance using a 30 s sprint and maximal oxygen uptake. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20 (9), 681-687.

Rodwell, V. W. (2000). Conversion of amino acids to specialized products. In R. K. Murray, D. K., Granner, P. A. Mayes, & V. W. Rodwell (Eds.). Harper’s Biochemistry (25th ed., pp. 354-357). Connecticut: Appleton & Lange.

Rossiter, H. B., Cannell, E. B., & Jakeman, P. M. (1996). The effect of oral creatine supplementation on the 1000-m performance of competitive rowers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 14 (2), 175-179.

Sahlin, K., Alverstrand, A., Brandt, R., & Hultman, E. (1978). Intracellular pH and bicarbonate concentration in human muscle during recovery from exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 45 (3), 474-480.

Shin, K., Minamitani, H., Onishi, S., Yamazaki, H., & Lee, M. (1997). Autonomic differences between athletes and nonathletes: spectral analysis approach. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29 (11), 1482-1490.

Skog, K. (1993). Cooking procedures and food mutagens: A literature review. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 31 (9), 655-675.

Smith, J. C., Stephens, D. P., Hall, E. L., Jackson, A. W., & Earnest, C. P. (1998). Effect of oral creatine ingestion on parameters of the work rate-time relationship and time to exhaustion in high-intensity cycling. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 77 (4), 360-365.

Snow, R. J., McKenna, M. J., Selig, S. E., Kemp, J., Stathis, C. G., & Zhao, S. (1998). Effect of creatine supplementation on sprint exercise performance and muscle metabolism. Journal of Applied Physiology, 84 (5), 1667-1673.

Steenge, G. R., Lambourne, J., Casey, A., Macdonald, I. A., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1998). Stimulatory effect of insulin on creatine accumulation in human skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology, 275 (Endocrinol. Metab. 38), E974-E979.

Steenge, G. R., Simpson, E. J., & Greenhaff, P. L. (2000). Protein- and carbohydrate-induced augmentation of whole body creatine retention in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89 (3), 1165-1171.

Stout, J. R., & Eckerson, J. M. (1999). The effects of creatine supplementation on anaerobic working capacity. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13 (2), 135-138.

Stroud, M. A., Holliman, D., Bell, D., Green, A. L., Macdonald, I. A., & Greenhaff, P. L. (1994). Effect of oral creatine supplementation on respiratory gas exchange and blood lactate accumulation during steady-state incremental treadmill exercise and recovery in man. Clinical Science, 87 (6), 707-710.

Syrotuik, D. G., Game, A. B., Gillies, E. M., & Bell, G. J. (2001). Effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation during combined strength and high intensity rowing training on performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology, 26 (6), 527-524.

Tarnopolsky, M. A., & MacLennan, D. P. (2000). Creatine monohydrate supplementation enhances high-intensity exercise performance in males and females. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 10 (4), 452-463.

Tarnopolsky, M. A., Parise, G., Yardley, N. J., Ballantyne, C. S., Olatinji, S., & Phillips, S. M. (2001). Creatine-dextrose and protein-dextorse induce similar strength gains during training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33 (12), 2044-2052.

Task Force of European Society of Cardiology and North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. (1996). Heart rate variability. Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Circulation, 93, 1046-1065.

Terjung, R. L., Clarkson, P., Eichner, E. R., Greenhaff, P. L., Hespel, P. J., Israel, R. G., Kraemer, W. J., Meyer, R. A., Spriet, L. L., Tarnopolsky, M. A., Wagenmakers, A. J. M., & Williams, M. H. (2000). The American College of Sports Medicine Roundtable on the physiological and health effects of oral creatine supplementation. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32 (3), 706-717.

Thompson, C. H., Kemp, G. J., Sanderson, A. L., Dixon, R. M., Styles, P., Taylor, D. J., & Radda, G. K. (1996). Effect of creatine on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism in skeletal muscle in swimmers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 30 (3), 222-225.

Tyler, T. F., Nicholas, S. J., Hershman, E. B., Glace, B. W., Mullaney, M. J., & McHugh, M. P. (2004). The effect of creatine supplementation on strength recovery after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 32 (2), 383-388.

Vandebuerie, F., Eynde, B. V., Vandenberghe, K., & Hespel, P. (1998). Effect of creatine loading on endurance capacity and sprint power in cyclists. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19 (7), 490-495.

Vandenberghe, K., Gillis, N., Van Leemputte, M., Van Hecke, P., Vanstapel, F., & Hespel, P. (1996). Caffeine counteracts the ergogenic action of creatine loading. Journal of Applied Physiology, 80 (2), 452-457.

Van Leemputte, M., Vandenberghe, K., & Hespel, P. (1999). Shortening of muscle relaxation time after creatine loading. Journal of Applied Physiology, 86 (3), 840-844.

Volek, J. S., Ratamess, N. A., Rubin, M. R., Gmez, A. L., French, D. N., McGuigan, M. M., Scheett, T. P., Sharman, M. J., Hkkinen, K., & Kraemer, W. J. (2004). The effects of creatine supplementation on muscular performance and body composition responses to short-term resistance training overreaching. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 91 (5-6), 628-637.

Wallimann, T., Wyss, M., Brdiczka, D., Nicolay, K., & Eppenberger, H. M. (1992). Intracellular compartmentation, structure and function of creatine kinase isoenzymes in tissues with high and fluctuating energy demands: the ‘phosphocreatine circuit’ for cellular energy homeostasis. The Biochemical Journal, 281, 21-40.

Watsford, M. L., Murphy, A. J., Spinks, W. L., & Walshe, A. D. (2003). Creatine supplementation and its effect on musculotendinous stiffness and performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 17 (1), 26-33.

Willoughby, D. S., & Rosene, J. (2001). Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myosin heavy chain expression. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33 (10), 1674-1681.

Willoughby, D. S., & Rosene, J. (2003). Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myogenic regulatory factor expression. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35 (6), 923-929.

Ziegenfuss, T. M., Lowery, L. M., & Lemon, P. W. R. (1998). Acute fluid volume changes in men during three days of creatine supplementation. Journal of Exercise Physiology, 1 (3), 1-9.