本研究通過量化分析(Quantitative Analysis)，探究母語(國語)音韻系統的轉移、普遍性、英語接觸、英語母語化程度和標記之間的相互作用如何影響台灣以英語為外語的學習者對英語輔音群的習得。並在優選理論(Optimality Theory)的架構下，藉由說明標記性制約(markedness constraints)及信實性制約(faithfulness constraints)在制約排序(constraint ranking)的衝突解釋台灣以英語為外語學習者的中介語言(interlanguage)如何從母語(國語)的音韻系統過渡到英語(國語)的音韻系統。
本研究藉由觀察72名台灣學習英語的小學生對24個具有不同標記程度輔音群英語單詞的感知及產製表現，得到以下結論: (1)由於國語的音韻系統中無複雜音節結構，因此台灣英語學習者在感知及產製英語輔音群時，需調整他們的感知及產製，以便符合母語(國語)的音節結構;(2)在感知及產製上所做的調整是根據所感知到的輔音表面語音特徵來處理，並且受普遍性的影響，例如用於簡化複雜音節結構的元音插入、用於異化相鄰相似輔音的輔音插入、用於同化相鄰相異輔音的輔音插入、字首(ICD)或字尾(FCD)的輔音刪除、替換與被替換輔音具有相似特徵的輔音；(3)除了母語轉移外，普遍性、接觸英語的量、母語水平和二語音節結構的標記性皆對台灣學習英語的學習者英語輔音群的習得有所影響，此外研究也發現學習者的感知與他們的產製有著顯著的正相關；(4)針對學習者對具有不同標記程度的英語輔音群的習得表現所歸納出的四個習得難度層級，對英語輔音群的習得順序具有教學上的意義；(5)分析三組學習者對英語輔音群的產製所得出的不同制約排序揭示了英語輔音群習得的四個發展性階段:從一開始標記性制約佔據在制約排序中的上層位置而信實性制約則相對佔據在制約排序中的中下層位置，到最後兩類制約互相調換在制約排序中的位置。
根據這些發現，二語學習者的英語輔音群習得可以通過量化分析，並在優選理論(OT)的架構下進行解釋。通過分析和說明，教師可以更全面地了解哪些因素會影響學習者的二語習得。

This study investigated how the interaction among the transfer from the Mandarin phonological system, language universals, exposure to English, native-like proficiency of English, and markedness affected Taiwan EFL learners' acquisition of English consonant clusters by a quantitative analysis of the learners' perception and production and an Optimality Theoretic account of the conflict between the markedness and faithfulness constraints in the constraint ranking. Seventy-two Taiwan EFL elementary schoolers with different amount of exposure to English and/or English learning were recruited to perceive and produce twenty-four English words with consonant clusters in varying degree of markedness.
The major findings obtained from this study were summarized as follows. First, the transfer from the prohibition of the Mandarin phonological system against complex syllable structures forced Taiwan EFL learners to modify their perception and production for the purpose of conforming the syllable structures of their L1. Second, the modifications the participants adapted were based on the surface phonetic features of the perceived consonants and affected by language universals, such as a vowel insertion for breaking complex syllable structures, a consonant insertion for dissimilating the adjacent similar consonants, bridging consonant clusters, word-initial (ICD) or word final (FCD) consonant deletion, and substitution of consonants with similar features to the replaced consonants in terms of articulation. Third, in addition to L1 transfer, language universals, amount of exposure to English, native-like proficiency of English, and markedness of the L2 syllable structure had the effects on Taiwan EFL learners’ acquisition of English consonant clusters, and the EFL learners’ perception had a significant, positive correlation with their production. Next, four levels of acquiring difficulty concluded from the participants’ performances on the English consonant clusters with varying degree of markedness had its pedagogical implication of the acquisition order of English consonant cluster. Finally, the OT account of the three groups of participants’ productions revealed four developmental stages of Taiwan EFL learners’ acquisition of English consonant clusters. From the beginning, the markedness constraints occupied the upper positions of the constraint ranking, while the faithful constraints occupied the relatively lower positions. With more exposure to English and/or English learning, the two types of constraints exchanged their positions in the constraint ranking.
According to these findings, L2 learners’ acquisition can be analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively and accounted within the framework of Optimality Theory (OT). With the analysis and account, teachers could have a more comprehensive understanding of what factors could affect learners’ L2 acquisition.

Ahmad, Jalal. 2011. Pronunciation Problems among Saudi Learners: A Case Study at the Preparatory Year Program, Najran University Saudi Arabia. Language in India 11: 1930–2940.
Alber, Birgit. 2001. Regional variation and edges: Glottal stop epenthesis and dissimilation in standard and southern varieties of German. Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 20: 3–41.
Al-Saidat, Emad M. 2010. Phonological analysis of English phonotactics: A case study of Arab learners of English. Anglogermanica Online 14–25.
Altenberg, Evelyn, and Vago, Robert M. 1983. Theoretical implications of an error analysis of second language phonology production. Language Learning 33: 427–447.
Anderson, John. 1987. The Markedness Differential Hypothesis and syllable structure difficulty. Interlanguage Phonology: The Acquisition of a Second Language Sound System, In Ioup G. and Weinberger S. H., (eds.), 279–291. New York: Newbury House/Harper & Row.
Aoyama, Katsura, James Emil Flege, Susan G. Guion, Akahane-Yamada Reiko, and Yamada Tsuneo. 2004. Perceived phonetic dissimilarity and L2 speech learning: The case of Japanese /r/ and English /l/ and /r/. Journal of Phonetics 32: 233–250.
Archibald, John. 1992. Transfer of L1 parameter settings: some empirical evidence from Polish metrics. Canadian Journal of Linguistics / Revue Canadienne de Linguistique 37: 301–339.
Archibald, John. 1993. Language Learnability and L2 Phonology: The Acquisition of Metrical Parameters. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Ash, Sharon, McMillan Corey, Gunawardena Delani, Avants Brian, Morgan Brianna, Khan Alea, Moore Peacchie, Gee James, and Grossman Murray. 2010. Speech errors in progressive non-fluent aphasia. Brain and Language 113.1:13–20.
Barlow, Jessica A. 1999. An argument for adjuncts: evidence from a phonologically disordered system. Proceedings of the Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development 23: 44–55.
Barlow, Jessica A. 2002. Error patterns and transfer in Spanish-English bilingual phonological development. Proceedings of the Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development 26: 60–71.
Bassetti, Bene, and Mehui Lu. 2016. Effects of interword spacing on native English readers of Chinese as a second language. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 54.1: 1–22.
Bayley, Robert, and Dennis R. Preston. 1996. Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Benson, Bronwen. 1986. The Markedness Differential Hypothesis: implications for Vietnamese speakers of English. In F. R. Eckman, E. A. Moravcsik, and J. R. Wirth (eds.), Markedness, 271–290. New York: Plenum Press.
Benson, Bronwen. 1988. Universal preference for the open syllable as an independent process in interlanguage phonology. Language Learning 38: 221–242.
Best, Catherine T. 1994. The emergence of native-language phonological influences in infants: A perceptual assimilation model. The Development of Speech Perception: The Rransition from Speech Sounds to Spoken Words, In Goodman C. and Nusbaum H. (eds.), 167–224. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Best, Catherine T. 1995. A direct-realist view of cross-language speech perception. Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Theoretical and Methodological Issues, In W. Strange (eds.), 171–204. Timonium, MD: York Press.
Best, Catherine T., Gerald W. McRoberts, and Elizabeth Goodell. 2001. Discrimination of non-native consonant contrasts varying in perceptual assimilation to the listeners’ native phonological system. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109: 775–793.
Bongaerts, Theo, Susan Mennen, and Frans van der Slik. 2000. Authenticity of pronunciation in naturalistic second language acquisition: The case of very advanced late learners of Dutch as a second language. Studia Linguistica 54.2: 298–308.
Bradlow, Ann R. 2008. Training non-native language sound patterns: Lessons from training Japanese adults on the English /p/ – /l/ contrast. In J. G. Hansen Edwards and M. L. Zampini (eds.), Phonology and Second Language Acquisition, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Bradlow, Ann, Akahane-Yamada Reiko, David Pisoni, and Yoh’ichi Tohkura. 1999. Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: Long-term retention of learning in speech perception and production. Perception & Psychophysics 61: 977–985.
Brannen, Kathleen. 2002. The role of perception in differential substitution. The Canadian Journal of Linguistics/La Revue Canadienne de Linguistique 47: 1–46.
Broselow, Ellen. 2000. Stress, epenthesis, and segment transformation in Selayarese loans. Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 1999: General Session and Parasession on Loan Word Phenomena, In S. S. Chang, L. Liaw and J. Ruppenhofer (eds.), 311–325. Berkeley, CA : Berkeley Linguistics Society.
Broselow, Ellen. 2004. Unmarked structures and emergent rankings in second language phonology. International Journal of Bilingualism 8: 51–65.
Broselow, Ellen, and Daniel Finer. 1991. Parameter setting in second language phonology and syntax. Second Language Research 7: 35–59.
Broselow, Ellen, Su-I Chan, and Chi-Lin Wang. 1998. The Emergence of the Unmarked in Second Language Phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 20: 261–280.
Brown, Cynthia. 2000. The interrelation between speech perception and phonological acquisition from infant to adult. Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory, In J. Archibald (eds.), 4–63. Oxford: Blackwell.
Bunta, Ferenc, and Roy C. Major. 2004. An optimality theoretic account of Hungarian ESL learners Acquisition of /ɛ/ and /æ/. International Review of Applied Linguistics 42: 277–298.
Carlisle, Robert S. 1997. The modification of onsets in a markedness relationship: Testing the Interlanguage Structural Conformity Hypothesis. Language Learning 47: 327–361.
Carmen, Muñoz. 2008. Symmetries and Asymmetries of Age Effects in Naturalistic and Instructed L2 Learning Applied Linguistics 29.4: 578–596.
Carola Matera and Michael M. Gerber. 2008. Effects of a Literacy Curriculum That Supports Writing Development of Spanish-Speaking English Learners in Head Start. NHSA Dialog 11.1: 25–43.
Chan, Alice Y. W. 2007. The Acquisition of English Word-Final Consonants by Cantonese ESL Learners in Hong Kong. Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue Canadienne De Linguistique 52.3: 231–253.
Chan, Alice Y. W., and David C. S. Li. 2000. English and Cantonese Phonology in Contrast: Explaining Cantonese ESL Learners’ English Pronunciation Problems. Language, Culture and Curriculum 13: 67–85.
Chao, Yuen-Ren. 1968. A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. Berkeley. California: University of California Press.
Cheng, Chin-Chuan. 1973. A Synchronic Phonology of Mandarin Chinese. Mouton: The Hague.
Colantoni, Laura, and Jeffrey Steele. 2007. Acquiring /ʁ/ in context. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 29: 381–406.
Davidson, Lisa. 2002. The effects of hidden rankings on the acquisition of consonant clusters. New Sounds 2000: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on the Acquisition of Second-Language Speech, In A. James and J. Leather (eds.), 87–96. Klagenfurt, Austria: University of Klagenfurt.
Davidson, Lisa. 2010. Phonetic bases of similarities in cross-language production: evidence from English and Catalan. JPh 38: 272–288
de Jong, Kenneth, Yen-Chen Hao, and Hanyong Park. 2009. Evidence for featural units in the acquisition of speech production skills: Linguistic structure in foreign accent. Journal of Phonetics 37: 357–373.
Demuth, Katherine. 1995. Markedness and the development of prosodic structure. NELS 25: 13–25.
Dodd, Barbara. 1995. Differential diagnosis and treatment of children with speech disorder. Procedures for Classification of Subgroups of Speech Disorder, In B. Dodd (eds.), 49–64. London: Whurr.
Duanmu, San. 2000. The Phonology of Standard Chinese. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dulay, Katrina M., Tong, Xiuhong, and McBride Catherine. 2017. The role of foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong Chinese children’s English and Chinese skills: A longitudinal study. Language Learning 67.2: 321–347.
Eckman, Fred R. 1977. Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning 27: 315–330.
Eckman, Fred R. 1981a. On predicting phonological difficulty in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 4: 18–30.
Eckman, Fred R. 1981b. On the naturalness of interlanguage phonological rules. Language Learning 31: 195–216.
Eckman, Fred R. 1981c. Markedness and degree of difficulty in second language acquisition. In Proceedings of the Fifth Congress of the International Association of Applied Linguistics, In Savard J-G. and Laforge L. (eds.), Les Presses de l’Universite Laval, 115–126.
Eckman, Fred R. 1984. Universals, typologies and interlanguages. Language Universals and Second Language Acquisition, In W. E. Rutherford (eds.), 79–105. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Eckman, Fred R. 1991. The structural conformity hypothesis and the acquisition of consonant clusters in the inter-language of ESL learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13.1: 23–41.
Eckman, Fred R. 2004. From phonemic differences to constraint rankings: Research on second language phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26: 513–549.
Eckman, Fred R. 2008. Typological markedness and second language phonology. Phonology and Second Language Acquisition, In J. G. Hansen Edwards and M. L. Zampini (eds.), Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Eckman, Fred R., Elreyes Abdullah, and Gregory K. Iverson. 2003. Some principles of second language phonology. Second Language Research 19: 169–208.
Eckman, Fred. R., and Gregory K. Iverson. 1993. Sonority and markedness among onset clusters in the interlanguage of ESL learners. Second Language Research 9: 234–252.
Edge, Beverly A. 1991. The Production of Word-Final Voiced Obstruents in English by L1 Speakers of Japanese and Cantonese. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13.3: 377–393.
Ellis, Rod. 1997. Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Escudero, Paola. 2006. The phonological and phonetic development of new vowel contrasts in Spanish learners of English. English with a Latin beat: Studies in Portuguese/Spanish–English Interphonology, In: Baptista B and Watkins MA (eds.), Studies in Bilingualism 31, 41–55. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Escudero, Paola, and Paul Boersma. 2004. Bridging the gap between L2 speech perception research and phonological theory. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26: 551–585.
Flege, James. 1995. Second language speech learning theory, findings, and problems. Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-language Research, In W. Strange (eds.), 233–277. Baltimore, MD: York Press.
Flege, James, Ian MacKay, and Diane Meador. 1999. Native Italian speakers’ perception and production of English vowels. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106: 2973–2988.
Gass, Suan M., and Larry Selinker. 2001. Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Gnanadesikan, Amalia Elisabeth. 1997. Phonology with Ternary Scales. Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts Amherst. Distributed by Graduate Linguistic Student Association (GLSA).
Gnanadesikan, Amalia Elisabeth. 2004. Markedness and faithfulness constraints in child phonology. Constraints in Phonological Acquisition, In R. Kager, J. Pater and W. Zonneveld (eds.), 73–109. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Giegerich, Heinz J. 1992. English Phonology: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Goad, Heather. 1997. Consonant harmony in child language: an optimality-theoretic account. Focus on Phonological Acquisition, In S. J. Hannahs and Martha Young-Sholten (eds.), 113–142. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Goad, Heather,` and Lydia White. 2006. Ultimate attainment in interlanguage grammars: A prosodic approach. Second Language Research 22: 243–267.
Goto, Hiromu. 1971. Auditory perception by normal Japanese adults of the sounds “L” and “R”. Neuropsychologia 9: 317–323.
Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. Language Universals with Special Reference to Feature Hierarchies. The Hague: Mouton.
Greenberg, Joseph H. 1969. Language Universals: A Research Frontier. Science 166: 473–478.
Greenberg, Joseph H. 1975. Research on language universals. Annual Review of Anthropology 4: 75–94.
Greenlee, Mel. 1974. Interacting processes in the child’s acquisition of stop-liquid clusters. Papers and Reports on Child Language Development 7: 85–100.
Hallé, Pierre A., and Catherine T. Best. 2007. Dental-to-velar perceptual assimilation: A cross-linguistic study of the perception of dental stop+/l/ clusters. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 121: 2899–2914.
Hallé, Pierre A., Catherine T. Best, and Levitt Andera. 1999. Phonetic versus phonological influences on French listeners’ perception of American English approximants. Journal of Phonetics 27: 281–306.
Hancin-Bhatt, Barbara. 2000. Optimality in second language phonology: Codas in Thai ESL. Second Language Research 16: 201–232.
Hancin-Bhatt, Barbara. 2003. Second language phonology in optimality theory. Unpublished paper present at the Second Language Research Forum, Tucson, AZ.
Hancin-Bhatt, Barbara. 2008. Second language phonology in optimality theory. Phonology and Second Language Acquisition, In J. G. Hansen Edwards and M. L. Zampini (eds.), Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Hancin-Bhatt, Barbara, and Rakesh M. Bhatt. 1997. Optimal L2 syllables: Interactions of transfer and developmental effects. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 331–378
Hansen, Jette G. 2001. Linguistic Constraints on the Acquisition of English Syllable Codas by Native Speakers of Mandarin Chinese. Applied Linguistics 22.3: 338–365.
Hansen, Jette G. 2004. Developmental Sequence in the Acquisition of English L2 Syllable Codas: A Preliminary Study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26.1: 85–124.
Hasan, Abd. 2019. Patterns of English Consonant Clusters in E. M. Forster’s ‘‘The Road From Colonus’’. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature 8: 23–33.
Hassan, Elkhair. 2014. Pronunciation Problems: A Case Study of English Language Students at Sudan University of Science and Technology. English Language and Literature Studies, 4.4: 31–44. Retrieved June 2, 2019, from http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ells.v4n4p31
Hattori, Kota, and Paul Iverson. 2010. Examination of the relationship between L2 perception and production: an investigation of English /r/-/l/ perception and production by adult Japanese speakers. In Interspeech Workshop on Second Language Studies: Acquisition, Learning, Education and Technology. Tokyo: Waseda University.
Hayes-Harb, Rachel, and Kyoko Masuda. 2008. Development of the ability to lexically encode novel second language phonemic contrasts. Second Language Research 24: 5–33.
He, Yun-Juan. 2014. Production of English Syllable Final /l/ by Mandarin Chinese Speakers. Journal of Language Teaching and Research 5.4: 742–750.
Hodne, Barbara. 1985. Yet another look at interlanguage phonology: The modification of English syllable structure by native speakers of Polish. Language Learning 35: 405–422.
Ingram, David. 1974. Fronting in child phonology. Journal of Child Language 1: 233–241.
James, Mark O. 1996. Improving second language reading comprehension: A computer-assisted vocabulary development approach. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaii, Manoa.
Jia, Gisela, Winifred Strange, Yanhong Wu, Julissa Collado, and Qi Guan. 2005. Perception and production of English vowels by Mandarin speakers: Age-related differences vary with amount of L2 exposure. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 119:1118–1130.
Johnson, Jacqueline S., & Newport Elissa L. 1989. Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology 21: 60–99.
Kanokpermpoon, Monthon. 2007. Thai and English consonantal sounds: a problem or a potential for EFL learning? ABAC Journal 27.1: 57–66.
Kijak, Anna. 2009. How stressful is L2 stress? A cross-linguistic study of L2 perception and production of metrical systems. Doctoral Dissertation, Universiteit Utrecht.
Kirk, Cecilia. 2008. Substitution errors in the production of word-initial and word-final clusters. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research 51: 35–48.
Kluge, Denise Cristina, Andréia S. Rauber, Mara Silvia Reis, and Ricardo A. Hoffmann Bion. 2007. The relationship between perception and production of English nasal codas by Brazilian learners of English. Proceedings of Interspeech 2297–2300.
Kuhl, Patricia. 1992. Psychoacoustics and speech perception: Internal standards, perceptual anchors, and prototypes. Developmental Psychoacoustics, Washington, In L. Werner and E. Rubel (eds.), 293–332. DC: American Psychological Association.
Kuhl, Patricia K., and Paul Iverson. 1995. Linguistic experience and the “perceptual magnet effect.” Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issues in Cross-Language Research, In W. Strange (eds.), 121–154. Timonium, MD: York Press.
Ladefoged, Peter. 1982. A Course in Phonetics (3rd edition). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Ladefoged, Peter, and Keith Johnson. 2014. A Course in Phonetics. Cengage Learning. Inc., Boston.
Lado, Robert. 1957. Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Lan, Yizhou. 2014. Frequency-influenced choice of L2 sound realization and perception: evidence from two Chinese dialects. Proceedings 28th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computing 292–298.
Lan, Yizhou. 2020. Perception of English fricatives and affricates by advanced Chinese learners of English. Interspeech: 25–29.
Lee, D. 1992. Universal Grammar, learnability, and the acquisition of English reflexive binding by L1 Korean speakers. Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
Lee, Shinsook. 2003. A comparison of cluster realizations in first and second language. The Journal of Studies in Language 19.2: 341–357.
Leow, Ronald P. 1998. The effects of amount and type of exposure on adult learners’ L2 development in SLA. The Modern Language Journal 82: 49–68.
Lin, Yen-Hwei. 2007. The Sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Logan, John S., Lively, Scott E., and David B. Pisoni. 1991. Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: a first report. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 89.2: 874–886, from https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1894649
Lombardi, Linda. 2003. Second language data and constraints on Manner: Explaining substitutions for the English interdentals. Second Language Research 19: 225–250.
Long, Peng, and Jane Setter. 2000. The Emergence of Systematicity in the English Pronunciations of Two Cantonese-Speaking Adults in Hong Kong. English World-Wide 21.1: 81–108.
Mackay, Ian, and Natalia Fullana. 2007. Starting age and exposure effects on EFL learners’ sound production in a formal learning context. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on the Acquisition of Second Language Speech 324–335.
Major, Roy C. 2001. Foreign Accent: The Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Second Language Phonology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Major, Roy C. 2008. Transfer in second language phonology. Phonology and Second Language Acquisition, In J. G. Hansen Edwards and M. L. Zampini (eds.), Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Markham, Duncan. 1997. Phonetic Imitation, Accent, and the Learner. Lund: Lund University Press. Kent, England: Chartwell-Bratt.
Martin, INES A. 2020. Pronunciation can be acquired outside the classroom: Design and assessment of homework-based training. The Modern Language Journal 104: 457–479.
Mayo, Lynn Hansberry, Mary Florentine, and Søren Buus. 1997. Age of second-language acquisition and perception of speech in noise. JSLHR 40: 686–693.
Mochizuki, Michiko. 1981.The identification of /r/ and /l/ in natural and synthesized speech. Journal of Phonetics 9.3: 283–303
Mohamad, Hayria, Hanafi Hanisah, and Dako Rahman Taufiqrianto. 2021. A Study on Phonological Process : A Case on Indonesian EFL Students’ Pronunciations. TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education 1.2:105–114.
Morén, Bruce. 1999. Distinctiveness, Coercion and Sonority: A Unified Theory of Weight. University of Maryland: Ph. D. Dissertation.
Moreton, Elliott, Feng, Gary, and Smith, Jennifer. L. 2005. Syllabification, sonority, and perception: New data from a language game. Chicago Linguistic Society 41: 341–355.
Moulton, William. G. 1962. The Sounds of English and German. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Moyer, Alene. 1999. Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology: The critical factors of age, motivation, and instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21: 81–108.
Moyer, Alene. 2007. Do language attitudes determine accent? A study of bilinguals in the USA. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 28.6: 502–518.
Musau, Paul. M. 1993 Aspects of Interphonology: the Study of Kenyan Learners of Swahili. Bayrenth, Bayrenth African Studies.
Muñoz, Carmen. 2007. CLIL: Some thoughts on its psycholinguistic principles. RESLA 1: 17– 26.
Muñoz, Carmen. 2014. Contrasting effects of starting age and type of input on the oral performance of foreign language learners. Applied Linguistics 35: 463– 482.
Neufeld, Gerald G. 1988. Phonological asymmetry in second-language learning and performance. Language Learning 38:531–559.
Ohala, Diane K. 1999. The influence of sonority on children’s cluster reductions. Journal of Communication Disorders 32: 397–422.
Ohala, John J. 1990. Alternatives to the sonority hierarchy for explaining segmental sequential constraints. CLS 26: Papers from the 26th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, vol. 2: The Parasession on the Syllable in Phonetics and Phonology, In M. Ziolkowski, M. Noske, K. Deaton (eds.), Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, 319–338.
Ohala, John J. 1993a. The phonetics of sound change. Historical Linguistics: Problems and Perspectives, ed. by C. Jones, 237–278. London: Longman.
Ohala, John J. 1993b. Sound change as nature’s speech perception experiment. Speech Comm.13: 155–161.
Peng, Long, and Jean Ann. 2002. An alternative to stress placement: Unity in stress placement in English as second language. New Sounds 2000: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on the Acquisition of Second-Language Speech, In A. James and J. Leather (eds.), Klagenfurt, Austria: University of Klagenfurt, 271–279.
Pennington, Martha. 1999. Computer aided pronunciation pedagogy: Promise, limitations, directions. Computer Assisted Language Learning 12: 427–440.
Pinget, Anne-France, René Kager, and Hans Van de Velde. 2020. Linking variation in perception and production in sound change: Evidence from Dutch obstruent devoicing. Language and Speech 63.3: 660–685.
Place, Silvia, and Hoff Erika. 2016. Effects and noneffects of input in bilingual environments on dual language skills in 2 ½-year-olds. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 19.5: 1023–1041.
Prince, Alan, and Paul Smolensky. 1993, 1997, 2004. Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar. London: Blackwell.
Riney, Tim. 1989. Syllable structure and interlanguage phonology. Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics 14.2: 1–40. Lawrence: University of Kansas.
Roach, Peter. 1983. English Phonetics and Phonology (4th edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rochet, Bernard L. 1995. Perception and production of second-language speech sounds by adults. Speech Perception and Linguistic Experience: Issue in Cross-Language Research, eds. by Strange W., 379–410. Baltimore: York Press.
Rothman, Jason, and Guijarro-Fuentes Pedro. 2010. Input quality matters: Some comments on input type and age-effects in adult SLA. Applied Linguistics 31: 301–6.
Sato, Charlene. 1984. Phonological processes in second language acquisition: Another look at interlanguage syllable structure. Language Learning 34: 43–57.
Schachter, Jacquelyn E. 1988. Second language acquisition and its relationship to Universal Grammar. Applied Linguistics 9: 219–235.
Schmidt, Richard W. 1987. Sociolinguistic variation and language transfer in phonology. Interlanguage Phonology: The Acquisition of a Second Language Sound System, In G. Ioup & S. H. Weinberger (eds.), Cambridge, MA: Newbury, 365–377.
Seligar, Herbert W. 1988. Psycholinguistic Issues in Second Language Acquisition. Second Language Acquisition: Multiple Perspectives, eds. by Beebe L. M., 115–141. Newbury, London.
Selinker, Larry. 1971. The Psychologically Relevant Data of Second Language Learning. The Psychology of Second Language Learning, eds. by Pimsleur P. and Quinn T., 35–43. Cambridge University Press, London.
Selkirk, Elisabeth. 1982. The syllable. The Structure of Phonological Representations, In Van der Hulst, H. and Smith, N. (eds.), Part II, Dordrecht: Foris Publications, 337–384.
Selkirk, Elisabeth. 1984. On the Major Class Features and Syllable Theory. Language Sound Structure: Studies in Phonology, In M. Aronoff and R. Oehrle, (eds.), Cambridge: MIT Press, 107–136.
Setiyadi, Bambang Ag. 2006. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu.
Sheldon, Amy, and Winifred Strange. 1982. The acquisition of /r/ and /l/ by Japanese learners of English: Evidence that speech production can precede speech perception. Applied Psycholinguistics 3: 243–261.
Shim, Rosa J. 1994. The sensitive period for second-language acquisition: An experimental study of age effects on Universal Grammar and language transfer. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
Silveira, Rosane, and Thaisy da Silva Martins. 2020. Assessing second language oral proficiency development with holistic and analytic scales. Ilha do Desterro 73.3: 227–250.
Skehan, Peter. 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Smith, Jennifer L. 2003. Onset sonority constraints and subsyllabic structure. Ms., UNC Chapel Hill. [Submitted to: John R. Rennison, Friedrich Neubarth, and Markus A. Pöchtrager, eds., Phonologica 2002.]
Smolensky, Paul. 1996. On the comprehension/production dilemma in child language. Linguistic Inquiry 27: 720–731.
Stahl, Steven A., and Bruce A. Murray. 1994. Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading. Journal of Educational Psychology 86: 221–234
Strange, Winifred, Akahane-Yamada Reiko, Kubo Reiko, Sonja A. Trent, and Kanae Nishi. 2001. Effects of consonantal context on perceptual assimilation of American English vowels by Japanese listeners. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109: 1691–1704.
Stockman, Ida J. 2006. Alveolar bias in the final consonant deletion patterns of African American children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 37: 85–95.
Stockwell, Robert J., Donald Bowen, and John W. Martin. 1965. The Grammatical Structures of English and Spanish. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Třísková, Hana. 2011. The Structure of the Mandarin Syllable: Why, When and How to Teach it. Oriental Archive 79.1: 99–134.
Trofimovich, Pavel, and Wendy Baker. 2006. LEARNING SECOND LANGUAGE SUPRASEGMENTALS: Effect of L2 experience on prosody and fluency characteristics of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28.1: 1–30.
Troncoso-Ruiz, Aurora, Mirjam Ernestus, and Mirjam Broersma. 2019. Learning to produce difficult L2 vowels: The effects of awareness-raising, exposure and feedback. Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Melbourne, Australia, ed. by Sasha Calhoun, Paola Escudero, Marija Tabain, and Paul Warren, 1094–1098. Canberra, Australia: Australasian Speech Science and Technology Association Inc.
Wang, Xinchun, and Jidong Chen. 2019. English Speakers’ Perception of Mandarin Consonants: The Effect of Phonetic Distances and L2 Experience. Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Melbourne, Australia, ed. by Sasha Calhoun, Paola Escudero, Marija Tabain and Paul Warren, 250–254. Canberra, Australia: Australasian Speech Science and Technology Association Inc.
Waniek-Kimczak, Ewa. 2002. How to predict the unpredictable – English word stress from a Polish perspective. Accents and Speech in Teaching English Phonetics and Phonology, In E. Waniek-Kimczak and P. J. Melia (eds.), Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 221–241.
Wang, Chi-Lin. 1995. The Acquisition of English Word-Final Obstruents by Chinese Speakers. NY: MIT dissertation.
Wei, You-Fu, and Ya-Lun Zhou. 2002. Insights into English Pronunciation Problems of Thai Students. Paper presented at the 8th Annual Meeting of the Quadruple Helix, April 6, 2002, Thailand.
Weinberger, Steven. 1990. Minimal segments in second language phonology. New Sounds 90: Proceedings of the 1990 Amsterdam Symposium on the Acquisition of Second Language Speech, In J. Leather and A. James (eds.), Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 263–311.
Weinberger, Steven. 1997. Minimal segments in second language phonology. Second language Speech: Structure and Process, In A. James and J. Leather (eds.), 263–312. Berlin: Mouton.
Weinreich, Uriel. 1953. Languages in Contact. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York.
Weinreich, Uriel. 1979. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. The Hague: Walter de Gruyter.
Wells, John C. 1982. Accents of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Wells, John C. 1990. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. London: Longman.
Wen, Zhong-Lin, and Bao-Juan Ye. 2014. Analyses of mediating effects: The development of methods and models. Advances in Psychological Science 22: 731–745.
Wester, Femke, Dicky Gilbers, & Wander Lowie. 2007. Substitution of dental fricative in English by Dutch L2 speakers. Language Sciences 29, 477–491.
Wode, Henning. 1977. The L2 acquisition of /r/. Phonetica 34: 200–217.
Yeh, Tzu-Fen. 2020. An OT analysis of Mandarin interference in the pronunciation of English obstruent-obstruent clusters. Taiwan Journal of Linguistics 18.2: 1–38.
Yip, Moira. 1996. Cantonese loanword phonology and Optimality Theory. Journal of East Asian Linguistics 2: 261–291.
Yopp, Hallie K. 1988. The validity and reliability of phonemic awareness tests. Reading Research Quarterly 23: 159–177.
Yule, George. 2006. The Study of Language: 3th Edition Thoroughly Revised and Updated. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zampini, Mary L. 1996. Voiced stop spirantization in the ESL speech of native speakers of Spanish, Applied Psycholinguistics 17: 335–354.
Zhang, Fa-Chun, and Peng-Peng Yin. 2009. A Study of Pronunciation Problems of English Learners in China. Asian Social Science 5.6:141–146.