本研究的目的是在發展更適合、有效的同理心 (本研究是指同理關懷) 測量方法。研究者以兩種自動化反應測量進行設計：點偵測與AMP。一共進行了兩個研究以檢驗其信效度。在研究一中，先招募 54 名大學生參與預備性研究，選出作為正式研究中使用的實驗促發圖片。於正式研究中，再招募 50 名心理相關科系的大學生，參與者必須完成兩種同理心自動化測量實驗、人際反應量表(包含EC與 PT 分量表)、新式成人利社會行為量表 (NSAP) 、與三種利社會行為測量 (捐款次數、捐款金額、抄寫次數)。結果發現兩種自動化測量有聚斂效度，並與自陳測量間有區辨效度，但只有同理心 AMP 可以預測抄寫次數。研究二中，一共招募了 135名大學與研究生參與預備性研究，以選出做為正式研究中的文字與圖片材料。正式研究參與者共 47 人，大部分為心理相關科系的大學生。研究二將同理心點偵測將材料換成詞語，而同理心 AMP 則增加了不符合同理的霸凌圖片，參與者須完成自動化測量、自陳測量、與行為測量。結果發現不同類型的測量間有區辨效度，但仍然只有同理心 AMP 能預測抄寫次數。總結兩個研究的結果如下：(一) 同理心點偵測具有信度但不具效度，且無法預測利社會行為。(二) 同理心AMP 有良好的信度，且在典型的利社會行為 (抄寫次數) 上，具有同時效度與預測效度。(三) 同理心 AMP 具有聚斂效度與區辨效度。(四) 同理心 AMP 與EC 沒有相關，可能是因為測驗結構的差異，一種是自動化反應測量，另一種是外顯自陳五點量表，兩者結構完全不相同。而另一個更重要的因素，是同理心層次的不同。 EC 量表所測得的，是外顯的、由個人意向控制的同理關懷；而同理心 AMP 所測得的，是自動化引發的、無法由意向控制的同理關懷。最後，本研究提出了同理關懷的自動化特性，在未來研究的建議上，參與者的組成背景對本研究結果可能造成影響，後續研究可招募更多元的參與者以進行探究。

The purpose of this study is to develop a more appropriate and effective measurement for empathy (the “study” here refers to empathic concern). The researcher adopts two types of automatic measurements for the research design: dot-probe task and AMP. A total of two researches were conducted to test the reliability and validity. In research 1, a total of 54 undergraduate students were recruited to participate in a preparatory research to screen out experimental priming pictures to be used in the formal study. In the formal study, 50 undergraduate students from the departments related to the field of psychology were recruited, and they were asked to complete two types of automatic measurement experiments for empathy, Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), New Scale for Adult’s Prosocialness (NSAP) and other three types of prosocial behavior measurements (number of donations, amount of donations, and number of copies). The results show that the two automatic reaction measurement have convergent validity and also they have discriminant validity with self-report inventory, but the number of copies can only be predicted by the empathy AMP. In research 2, a total of 135 of undergraduate and graduate students were recruited to participate in a preparatory study to screen out text and picture materials to be used in the formal study. The 47 participants in the formal study were mostly undergraduate students from the departments related to the field of psychology. Research 2 replaced materials used in the dot-probe task for empathy with texts, and a variety of bullying images that are not conforming to empathy were added to the empathy AMP. The participants were required to complete the automatic reaction measurement, self-report inventory, and behavior measurement. The results show that the different measurements have discriminant validity, but the number of copies can only be predicted by the empathy AMP. The results of the two researches are summarized as follows: (1) Dot-probe task for empathy has reliability but not validity, and it does not predict prosocial behaviors. (2) The empathy AMP displays good reliability, and also offers concurrent validity and predictive validity in terms of the typical prosocial behaviors (number of copies). (3) The empathy AMP has convergent validity and discriminant validity. (4) The empathy AMP and EC are not correlated, which may be due to the difference in test structure, as the structures of the automatic response measurement and explicit self-report five-point Likert scale are totally different. Another more important factor is the different levels of empathy. The EC scale measures the empathic concern that is explicit and controlled by personal intentions, while the empathy AMP measures empathy that is triggered by automation and not controlled by intentions. Finally, this study proposes the automatic characteristics of empathic concern. With respect to the recommendations for future studies, the background of participants may also affect the results of this research, so that it is desirable to have participants with diverse backgrounds for further studies.

一、中文部分
林思賢 (2009)。情感錯誤歸因程序的歷程分離：激發後校正模式 (未出版之博士論文)。國立中正大學，嘉義縣。
林苡彤、程景琳 (2010)。國中生關係攻擊加害者與受害者之規範信念、同理心與因應策略。台東大學教育學報，21 (2)，1-28。
郭慧婷 (2019)。大學生社會連結感對利社會行為的影響：以同理心作為中介變項 (未出版之碩士論文)。國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。
蔡孟寧、王倫婷、林烘煜 (2015)。情感錯誤歸因程序的自動化反應態度測量檢視。中華心理學刊，57，261-280。 [Tsai, M. N., Wang, L. T., & Lin, H. Y. (2015). Affect misattribution procedure as an automatic evaluative reaction measurement.Chinese Journal of Psychology, 57, 261-280. DOI: 10.6129/ CJP.20150202]
簡嘉盈、程景琳 (2012)。同儕對高中生之利社會行為的影響：檢視同理心與友誼特性之調節角色。教育科學期刊，11(1)，105-123。
顏乃欣 (2010)。情緒對決策歷程的影響。人文與社會科學簡訊，11(4)，113-120。
顏乃欣、廖瑞銘、楊建銘、黃淑麗、蔡介立（2013）。臺灣地區華人情緒與相關心理生理資料庫—臺灣情緒圖片系統。中華心理學刊，55(4)，477-492.
二、外文部分
Andreychik, M. R., & Gill, M. J. (2012). Do negative implicit associations indicate negative attitudes?: Social explanations moderate whether ostensible “negative” associations are prejudice-based or empathy-based. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1082-1093.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2005). The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 173-221). Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Baayen, R. H., & Milin, P. (2010). Analyzing reaction times. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3, 12– 28.
Bar-Anan, Y., & Nosek, B. A. (2012). Reporting intentional rating of the primes predicts priming effects in the Affective Misattribution Procedure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1194 -1208.
Barnett, M. A. (1987). Empathy and related responses in children. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 146-162). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163-175.
Batson, C. D. (2011). Altruism in humans. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Batson, C. D., Duncan, B. D., Ackerman, P., Buckley, T., & Birch, K. (1981). Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation? Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 40, 290-302.
Berkowitz, L. (1987). Mood, self-awareness, and willingness to help . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 721-729.
Betella, A., & Verschure, P. (2016). The affective slider: A digital selfassessment scale for the measurement of human emotions. PLOS ONE, 11(2).
Bierhoff, H. W. (2002). Prosocial behaviour. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Blair, R. J. R. (2005). Responding to the emotions of others: Dissociating forms of empathy through the study of typical and psychiatric populations. Consciousness and Cognition, 14, 698-718.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
Caprara, G. V., Steca, P., Zelli, A., & Capanna, C. (2005). A new scale for measuring adults’ prosocialness. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 21(2), 77–
89.
Caserotti, M., Rubaltelli, E., & Slovic, P. (2019). How decision context changes the balance between cost and benefit increasing charitable donations. Judgment and Decision Making, 14(2), 187–198.
Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995) A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. G.
Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope & F. R. Schneier, Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment. New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.
Cohen, D., & Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy in conduct-disordered and comparison youth. Developmental Psychology, 32, 988-998.
Cuff, B. M. P., Brown, S. J., Taylor, L., & Howat, D. (2016). Empathy: A review of the concept. Emotion Review, 8(2), 144–153.
Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85.
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113-126.
de Waal, F. B. (2008). Putting the altruism back into altruism: The evolution of empathy. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 279-300.
Dunfield, K., Kuhlmeier, V. A., O’Connell, L., Kelley, E. (2011). Examining the diversity of prosocial behavior: Helping, sharing, and comforting in infancy. Infancy, 16, 227-247.
Dutton, D. G., & Aron, A. P. (1974). Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
30(4), 510-517.
Dziobek, I., Rogers, K., Fleck, S., Bahnemann, M., Heekeren, H. R., Wolf, O. T., & Convit, A. (2008). Dissociation of cognitive and emotional empathy in adults with Asperger syndrome using the Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 464-473.
Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Neubauer, D. H., Mauss, I. B., & Gross, J. J. (2002). Implicit anxiety measure predicts cardiovascular reactivity to an evaluated speaking task. Emotion, 2(1), 3-11.
Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 665-697.
Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 101(1),91-119.
Fazio R. H. (2007). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations of varying strength. Social Cognition, 25, 603–637.
Findlay, L. C., Girardi, A., & Coplan, R. J. (2006). Links between empathy, social behavior, and social understanding in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21, 347-359.
Gallese, V. (2003). The roots of empathy: The shared manifold hypothesis and the neural basis of intersubjectivity. Psychopathology, 36, 171–180.
Gawronski, B., & Payne, B. K. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Gini, G., Albieri, P., Benelli, B., & Altoe, G. (2008). Determinants of adolescents’ active defending and passive bystanding behavior in bullying. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 93-105.
Grant, S.G. (2001). It’s just the facts, or is it? The relationship between teachers’ practices and students’ understanding of history. Theory and Research in Social Education, 29(4). 63-108.
Haidt, J. (2003). The moral emotions. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 852-870). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hodges, S. D., & Myers, M. W. (2007). Empathy. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 296-298). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hodges, S.D., & Wegner, D.M. (1997). Automatic and controlled empathy. In W. Ickes (Ed.), Empathic Accuracy (pp. 311-340). New York: Guilford Press.
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hofmann, W. & Baumert, A. (2010). Immediate affect as a basis for intuitive moral judgement: An adaptation of the affect misattribution procedure. Cognition and Emotion, 24(3), 522-535.
Hofmann, W., Koningsbruggen, G. M., Stroebe, W., Ramanathan, S., Aarts, H. (2010). As pleasure unfolds: Hedonic responses to tempting food. Psychological Science, 12, 1863–1870.
Jackson, P. L., Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2005). How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy. NeuroImage, 24, 771–779.
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). Empathy and offending: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 441-476.
Kaya, B. (2016). An evaluation of the empathy levels of pre-service social studies teachers. Educational Research and Reviews, 11(6), 229-237.
Keaton, S. A. (2017). Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). In. D. L. Worthington & G. D. Bodie (Eds.), The Sourcebook of listening research: Methodology and measures (pp. 340– 347). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
Kohler, W. (1929). Gestalt psychology. New York: Liveright.
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2008). International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective rating of picture and instruction manual. Technical
Report A-8. Gainesville, FL: University of Florid.
Lee, Y., & Chang, C. (2008). Intrinsic or extrinsic? Determinants affecting donation behaviors. International Journal of Educational Advancement, 8(1), 13–24.
Loersch, C., & Payne, B. K. (2011). The situated inference model: An integrative account of the effects of primes on perception, behavior, and motivation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 234-252.
Lovett, B. J., & Sheffield, R. A. (2007). Affective empathy deficits in aggressive children and adolescents: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 1-13.
MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 405-417.
MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15-20.
McDonald, J. D. (2008). Measuring personality constructs: The advantages and disadvantages of self‐reports, informant reports and behavioural assessments. Enquire , 1 , 1–18.
Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 40, 525-543.
Miller, P. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1988). The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 324-344.
Nancanow, C., & Brace, I. (2000). Saying the “right thing”. Coping with Social Desirability Bias in Marketing Research. Bristol Business School Teaching and
Research Review, 3, 1468-4578.
Nesdale, D., Griffith, J., Durkin, K., & Maass, A. (2005). Empathy, group norms and children ’ s ethnic attitudes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 623-637.
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. D. (2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 277293.
Payne, B.K., Burkley, M.A., & Stokes, M.B. (2008). Why do implicit and explicit attitude tests diverge? The role of structural fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 16–31.
Preston, S. D. (2013). The origins of altruism in offspring care. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1305-1341.
Preston, S. D., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 1-20.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making democracy work. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ratcliffe, R. (1993). Methods for dealing with reaction time outliers. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 510-532.
Rodriguez, C. M. (2013). Analog of parental empathy: Association with physical child abuse risk and punishment intentions. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37,493-499.
Shachter, S., & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social and physiological components of the emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
Schinkoeth, M., & Antoniewicz, F. (2017). Automatic Evaluations and Exercising: Systematic Review and Implications for Future Research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2013.
Segal, E. A. (2011). Social empathy: A model built on empathy, contextual understanding , and social responsibility that promotes social justice. Journal of
Social Service Research, 37, 266-277.
Segal, E.A., Cimino, A., Gerdes, K.E., Harmon, J.K. & Wagaman, M.A. (2013). A confirmatory factor analysis of the Interpersonal and Social Empathy Index. Journal of the Society for Social Work Research, 4(3), 131-153. doi:105243/jsswr.2013.9.
Segal, E. A., Wagaman, M. A., & Gerdes, K. E. (2012). Developing the Social Empathy Index: An exploratory factor analysis. Advances in Social Work, 13, 541-560.
Spiecker, B. (1988). Education and the moral emotions. In B. Spiecker & R. Straughan (Eds.), Philosophical issue in moral education and development (pp.43-63). Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Starzomska, M. (2017). Applications of the dot probe task in attentional bias research in eating disorders: A review. Psicológica, 38(2), 283- 346.
Staugaard, S.R. (2009). Reliability of two versions of the dot-probe task using photographic faces. Psychology Science, 51, 339–350.
Staugaard, S. R. (2010). Threatening faces and social anxiety: a literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(6), 669-690.
Stern, J. A., & Cassidy, J. (2018). Empathy from infancy to adolescence: An attachment perspective on the development of individual differences. Developmental Review, 47,1-22.
Stone, V. (2006). The moral dimensions of human social intelligence. Philosophical Explorations, 9, 55-68.
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Taylor, S. E. (2002). The tending instinct. New York, NY: Holt.
van Rooijen, R., Ploeger, A., & Kret, M. E. (2017). The dot‐probe task to measure emotional attention: A suitable measure in comparative studies? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 42(6), 1686– 1717.
Wagaman, M. A. (2011). Social empathy as a framework for adolescent empowerment. Journal of Social Service Research, 37, 278-293.
Williams, A., Steele, J. R., & Lipman, C. (2016). Assessing children’ s implicit attitudes using the affect misattribution procedure. Journal of Cognition and
Development, 17(3), 505-525.
Wilson, D. A., Tomonaga, M. (2018). Exploring attentional bias towards threatening faces in chimpanzees using the dot probe task. PLoS One, 13(11): e0207378. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207378
Wondra, J. D., Ellsworth, P. C. (2015). An appraisal theory of empathy and other vicarious emotional experiences. Psychological Review, 122, 411–428.
Yiend, J. (2010). The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information.Cognition and Emotion, 24(1), 3-47.
Zanna, M. P., & Rempel, J. K. (1988). Attitudes: A new look at an old concept. In D. Bar-Tal & A. Kruglanski (Eds.), The social psychology of knowledge. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Zanna, M. P. (1990). Attitude functions: Is it related to attitude structure? Advances in Consumer Research, 17, 98–100.