19世紀以降，柔佛地區的熱帶栽培業大多集中於柔佛南部，西部海岸地區則是沼澤遍布的景觀。至1930年代，西部海岸地區逐漸墾成椰園散布的農業景觀。獨立迄今，西部岸海地區盡是連綿不絕的油棕園。因此，本研究嘗試以柔佛州居鑾河區為例，從世界、國家與地方等尺度，探究市場需求與國家力量是如何形塑農業生產外部條件，並且透過各時期小園主的農業決策與經營方式的轉變，說明農業產銷活動與產銷組織等運作，建構各時期園丘經營人文生態系統，理解農業土地利用變遷的意涵。
居鑾河區農業土地利用的變遷大致可區分成三個時期：

一、由沼澤遍布漸成椰園時期
19世紀中葉以後，由於歐洲市場對於橡膠與植物性油品的需求，觸發馬來半島上橡膠與椰子種植業的發展。然而，在種植者滿足歐洲市場需求的同時，英國也為了確保其在馬來半島的經濟利益，開始調整殖民政策。在新的殖民政策下，英國以顧問官的制度，進行間接統治，控制柔佛的政經發展，改造柔佛的農業發展環境來迎合英國或歐洲市場的需求。
由於居鑾河區地勢低下、土壤酸性強且容易淹水的環境特性，較不利於橡膠樹的種植，使得小園主無法完全符合英國或歐洲市場的需求，選擇種植橡膠，退而求其之，選擇種植較能適應自然環境的椰子。因此，此時期居鑾河區園丘作物以椰子為主。

二、由椰園逐漸轉為椰園間作
二次大戰後，合成橡膠的出現與使用，危及馬來西亞以天然橡膠出口為主的經濟結構。因此，從1960年起，政府開始試圖發展新的農業活動，提升新的農業活動之重要性，讓農業朝多元化發展。為了推動農業多樣化，政府擬定許多投資發展方案，其中有一項方案為「椰園翻種計劃」，主要是因應全球椰油市場的興起。對政府而言，椰油市場的興起是一個落實農業多元化的機會。然而，椰子種植業受制於經營環境的惡化，椰子產量衰退，無法滿足市場的需求。因此，政府以此翻種計劃來協助小園主，翻種或復興椰園，推動椰子種植業的新發展。
居鑾河區小園主基於政府補助與間作利益等考量，加入翻種計劃。另外，在間作作物選擇上，小園主考量作物獲利與自然環境等因素，大多選擇可可或咖啡來間作。因此，此時期居鑾河區園丘作物依然以椰子為主，間作可可或咖啡。

三、由椰園間作走向油棕園
自1960年代起，椰油出口市場競爭激烈，降低椰油出口貿易所創造的經濟利益；同一時期，非洲棕油生產國產油量減少，促使棕油價格上漲。不過在面對其他植物性油品的競爭下，若咨意發展油棕種植業，可能會出現生產過剩的情形，因此馬來西亞油棕種植業必須是有計劃性的發展。因此，政府分別從公共部門和私人部門的投資與干涉，奠定油棕種植業的發展基礎，間接地鼓勵小園主加入油棕種植業的行列。
自1980年代起，居鑾河區的小園主逐漸將椰園，轉為油棕園。不過，在這次作物內容的轉變上，政府沒有提供任何的補助，降低轉作的成本；此外，居鑾河區的土壤排水不良，不利於油棕樹的根系發展。若是如此，小園主為何願意改種油棕樹？首先，政府透過「西柔佛農業整合發展計劃」，協助小園主解決排水問題，改善種植環境；其次，油棕獲利高於椰子，增強小園主轉作的動機。因此，此時期居鑾河區園丘作物由椰子逐漸轉以油棕為主。

總而言之，居鑾河區農業土地利用的變化即是小園主的農業決策對於外部環境的回應。在回應的過程中，可以發現自然環境對於小園主的經營決策影響甚大。然而，國家基於經濟發展的考量，會透過公共投資或其他方式，改變農業發展的外部條件，讓小園主順應市場需求來經營園丘。一旦市場需求與國家力量對於園丘經營的影響增強時，小園主會逐漸喪失自主性，也造成園丘經營的人文生態系統愈趨於開放，進而增強對於外部環境的依賴。

Since 19th century, tropical cultivation industry of Johore is mostly concentrated in southern Johore. In western coastal areas, there are all over the swamps. Till 1930’s,western coastal areas have been gradually reclaimed the agricultural landscape of coconut holding. From independence till now, there is full of endless oil palm holding in western coastal areas. Therefore, this research tries to take Mukim S. Kluang of Johore as example, investigating how the demand of the market and the power of nation shape the external conditions for agricultural production in terms of the world, nation, and region. Also, through the small holder’s change of agricultural decision and mode of operation in each period, demonstrating agricultural production marketing activities and organizations, etc, constructing the small holder human ecological system in each period, comprehending the meaning of the change of agricultural land use.
The changes of agricultural land use in Mukim S. Kluang can be broadly divided into three periods:
1. The period from swamps everywhere to coconut holding:
After the mid-19th century, as the European market demands the rubber and vegetable oil, makes the rubber and coconut plantation industry being developed in Malay Peninsula. However, at the same time, when planters meet the needs of the European market, the British begins to adjust the colonial Policy in order to ensure the profit of Malay Peninsula. Under the new colonial Policy, the British assigns the advisers to reign over Johore indirectly- control the political and economic development of Johore and transform the agricultural environment for the development of Johore to meet the needs of the United Kingdom or the European market.
Owing to the environmental characteristics of low-lying land, strong acidic soil, and easily flooded in Mukim S. Kluang, it is less conducive to the cultivation of rubber trees. It makes the small holders cannot meet the needs f the United Kingdom or the European market at all. Therefore, the small holders choose planting coconut which is more able to adapt the natural environment. Consequently, in this period, the crop of the small holding in Mukim S. Kluang is mainly coconut.
2. The period from coconut holding to intercropping coconut holding:
After WWII, the emergence and use of synthetic rubber endanger the economic structure of the natural rubber export-oriented in Malaysia. Thus, from 1960, the government starts to try developing new agricultural activities. The government enhances the importance of new agricultural activities, making the agriculture have diversified development. To promote Agricultural diversification, the government drafts many investment development programs. One of the programs is “coconut replanting and rehabilitation scheme” that is mainly for the rise of coconut oil in global market.
For government, the rise of coconut oil in global market is an opportunity to implement agricultural diversification. However, coconut-farming is limited to deteriorating agronomic and economic conditions. The production of coconut declines which is unable to meet the needs of the market. Therefore, the government assists the small holders with the plan of replanting- replant or rehabilitate coconut holding to promote the new development of coconut-farming.
Based on the subsidies of government and the profit of intercropping, the small holders in Mukim S. Kluang join the plan of replanting. Besides, when the small holders choose the intercrop, they consider the factors such as the profit of crops and natural environment. They choose interplant mostly cocoa or coffee. Consequently, in this period, the crop of the small holding in Mukim S. Kluang is still mainly coconut;intercrop is cocoa or coffee.
3. From intercropping coconut holding to oil palm holding:
Since 1960’s, the export market of coconut oil is competitive which reduces the economic profits by the coconut oil export trade. During the same period, the production of African oil palm reduces which make the price of oil palm rise. However,under the competition of other vegetable oil, the development of oil palm-farming must be planned. Thus, the government lays the foundation for the development of oil palm-farming by investment and interference from public sector and private sector. And it indirectly encourages the small holders to join the oil palm farming.
Since 1980’s, the small holders in Mukim S. Kluang transform coconut holding into oil palm holding. Nevertheless, this time, the government doesn’t provide any subsidy to reduce the cost of transferring crops. In addition, due to the poorly drained soil in Mukim S. Kluang, it is not conducive to the development of root of oil palm. If so, why small holders are willing to replant oil palm tree? First of all, through “West Johore integrated agricultural development program”, the government assists small holders to resolve the drainage problems, improving the environment of planting. Then,the higher profit of oil palm than coconut enhances small holders’ motivation of replanting. Consequently, in this period, the crop of the small holding in Mukim S.Kluang gradually transferred from the coconut to oil palm.
In brief, the change of agricultural land-use is agricultural decision-making for the small holders’ response to the external environment. In the process of responding,we can find natural environment make a great influence on small holders’ management decision. However, based on the considerations of the economic development, the
nation will change the external conditions for agricultural development through public investment or other ways, making small holders follow the demand of market to manage small holding. Once when the influence of market demand and national forces enhances toward small holders’ management, small holders will gradually loss autonomy. It also makes human ecological system which is managed by small holders tend to be more open. And then it enhances the dependence on the external environment.

壹、中文部分
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1972 “Suitable Cocoa Soil In West Malaysia”, in Wasite, R. L. and Earp, D. A.（eds） Cocoa and Coconuts In Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur: Incorporated Society of Planters, pp127-135.
Wood, B. J.
1986 A Brief Guid to Oil Palm Science, Kula Lumpur: The Incorporated Society Planter.
Zimmerer, K. S. and Bassett, T. J.
2003 “Approaching Political Ecology: Society, Nature, and Scale in Human-Environment Studies”, in Zimmerer, K. S. and Bassett, T. J. (eds) Political ecology : an integrative approach to geography and environment-development studies, New York; London: the Guilford Press,1-28.
二、論文∕期刊
Bassett, T. J.
1988 The Political Ecoogy of Peasant-Herder Conflicts in the Nothern Ivory Coast, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 78, pp453-472.
Bryant, R. L
1992 Political Ecology An emerging research agenda in Third-World studies, Political Geography, Vol. 11:1, pp12-36
Carney, J.
1993 Converting the Wetland, Engedering the Environment: The Intersection of Gender with Agrarian Change in the Gambia, Economic Geography, Vol 69: 4, pp329-348.
Chapman, M. D.
1989. The Political Ecology of Fisheries Depletion in Amazonia, Environmental Conservation, Vol. 16: 4, pp330-337.
Dodds, D. J.
1998 Lobster in the Rain Forest: The Political Ecology of The Political Ecology of Miskito Wage Labor and Agricultural Deforestation, Political Ecology Vol. 5, pp83-108.
Daniels R. and Bassett, T. J.
2002 The Spaces of Conservation and Development around Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya, The Professional Geographer, Vol. 54: 4, pp481-490。
Grossman, L.
1977 Man-Environment Realationships in Anthropology and Geography, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 67, pp126-144.
Grossman, L. S.
1993 The Political Ecology of Banana Exports and Local Food Production in St. Vincent Eastern Caribbean, Annals of the Association of American Geographer, Vol. 83, pp347-367.
Lim Chow-Hock
1991 Reclamation and Management of Peatland for Agricultural Development in West Johor, Malaysia, Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography, Vol.22:2, pp124-132.
Neumann, R. P.
1997 Primitive Ideas: Protected Area Buffer Zones and the Politics of Land in Africa, Development and Change, Vol. 28, pp559-582.
Pichón, F. J.
1996 Settler agriculture and the dynamics of resource allocation in frontier environments, Human Ecology, Vol. 24:3, pp341-371.
Rees1, A. R. and Tinker1, P. B. H.
1963 Dry-matter production and nutrient content of plantation oil palms in Nigeria Ⅱ. Nutrient content, Plant and Soil, Vol. 19:1, pp361-354.
Tan Tek Soon
1902 Chinese Local Trade, Straits Chinese Magazine, Vol. 6:23, pp89-97.
Thio, E.
1967 British Policy Towards Johore, JMBRAS, Vol. 40, pp2-3.
Trocki, C. A.
1976 The Origins of the Kangchu System 1740-1860, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol.49: 2, pp132-155.
Turnull, C. M.
1959 The Johore Gambier and Pepper Trade in the Mid-19th Century, Journal of the South Seas Society, Vol.15, pp43-55.
Vayda, A. P. and Walters, B. B.
1999 Against Political Ecology, Human Ecology, Vol. 27, pp167-179.
Zimmerer, K. S.
1991 Wetland Production and Small Houesholder Persistence: Agriculture Change in a Highland Peruvian Region, Annals of the Association of American Geographe, Vol. 81, pp443-463.

參、馬來文部分
一、專書
Caroline Wong May Leng
1992 Sistem Kangcu Di Johor 1844-1917, Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Muzium Malaysia.
M.A. Fawzi Basri
1978 Sejarah Johor moden 1855-1940: satu perbicangan dari pelbagai aspek, Kuala Lumpur: Muzium Negara.
Sahgidon Dirhan
2001 “Pembukaan Dan Pembangunan Awal Pontian”, in Kassim Thukiman, Yahaya Abu Bakar, Mahmud Embong (eds) Menelusuri sejarah tempatan Johor, Johor : Yayasan Warisan Johor, 361-375.

肆、日文部分
一、專書
內田義彥
1942 《マレ- の農產資源：（1）ココ椰子.油椰子》，東京：東亞研究所。
二、論文∕期刊
永田淳嗣
1994 〈ジョホール・マラッカ海峡沿岸におけるある在地権力者の農園経営〉，《東南アジア研究》，32：3，頁357-384。

伍、地圖
FMS&SS
1932 Map of Johre, Singapore: Direction of the Surveyor Generanl F.M.S & S. S.

陸、網路資源
馬來西亞國家農民組織
http://nafas.com.my/v2/（瀏覽日期2008/10/20）
森那美企業（Sime Darby Berhad）
http://www.simedarby.com/（瀏覽日期2008/10/19）
森那美種植業公司（Sime Darby Plantation Sdn Bhd）
http://plantation.simedarby.com/ （瀏覽日期2008/10/19）
國際糧農組織（FAO）
http://faostat.fao.org/（瀏覽日期2008/10/28、2009/4/22）
國際糧農組織（FAO）
2004 Fertilizer use by crop in Malaysia, Rome: FAO http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5797e/y5797e00.HTM（瀏覽日期2009/03/31）