研究目的：本研究欲檢驗臺灣青少年偏差行為發展軌跡是否存在不同類型，並探討家庭與學校脈絡之社會支持與個人特質對於青少年不同類型偏差行為成長軌跡的聯合影響效果，以及社會支持對於不同類型偏差行為成長軌跡的聯合影響效果是否會受到性別的修飾。

研究方法：本研究採用臺灣教育長期追蹤資料庫的四波追蹤樣本 (N = 4163) 。使用成長混合模型針對青少年偏差行為發展軌跡進行異質性分析，並進一步使用多元羅吉斯回歸分析，以瞭解家庭及學校脈絡的社會支持、個人特質及社會支持與性別的交互作用項對青少年不同類型偏差行為軌跡發展的影響。

研究結果：臺灣青少年偏差行為可分為四個異質性次群體，分別為穩定低偏差、穩定下降型、持續上升型及持續高偏差。環境脈絡之社會支持中發現父親支持、母親支持及國三教師訊息支持較高，個體較不易成為高偏差行為之次群體。個人脈絡中，青少年若具外向性人格，個體易成為穩定下降型；相較於女性，男性較易成為高偏差行為之次群體。最後，母親支持及教師支持對於青少年不同類型偏差行為次群體的影響，會因性別不同而有差異。

研究結論：本研究發現青少年偏差行為存在不同類型的成長軌跡，家庭支持、學校支持及個人特質對不同類型的成長軌跡具有不同的影響效果，且性別會修飾社會支持對其成長軌跡類型的影響。

Purpose: This study aims to examine 1) whether there are different types of Taiwan adolescents’ deviant behaviors trajectories, 2) the effect of social support in different context and personal characteristics on different types of deviant behaviors trajectories, 3) whether the influence of social support on different types of deviant behaviors trajectories is different by adolescents’ gender.

Method: In this study, data of 4163 students are selected from the Taiwan Education Panel Survey (TEPS) in four waves. The heterogeneity of the deviant behaviors trajectories is identified by the growth mixture modeling. Furthermore, data are analyzed using multinomial logistic regression models to predict trajectory group membership.

Result: Adolescents’ deviant behaviors show four heterogeneous classes on the trajectories: rare offenders, decliners, early starters, and chronic offenders. If adolescents perceive higher paternal and maternal support and teacher informational support in Grade 9, they are less likely to become high deviant behaviors trajectories. Adolescents with high extroversion personality are to be strongly related to become decliners. Compared to female, male have a high possibility of becoming higher deviant behaviors trajectories. Finally, adolescent’ gender might moderate the effect of maternal and teacher support on specific types of deviant behaviors trajectories.

Conclusions: There are distinct types of adolescents’ deviant behaviors trajectories. Family support, school support, and personal characteristics have different effects on specific types of deviant behaviors trajectories, and gender might modify the effect of social support on specific types of deviant behaviors trajectories.

一、中文文獻
王郁琮. (2013). 應用成長混合模式剖析臺灣青少年憂鬱發展軌跡的異質性: 六步驟策略性模式發展機制研究. 教育研究與發展期刊, 9(4), 119-148. doi: 10.3966/181665042013120904005
石文宜. (2005). 國中生人格特質、師生互動關係與偏差行為之關係. Retrieved from http://nccuir.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/33064
江明慧. (2010). 教師負面評價、同儕關係對青少年偏差行為之影響. 成功大學. Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database.
吳中勤. (2016). 中學生偏差行為組型的異質性分析: 社會心理學觀點的詮釋. 教育心理學報, 47(4), 525-546.
吳佳霓. (2002). 青少年家庭系統分化、自我發展與生活適應之相關性的研究---以台中縣國中生為例. (碩士), 南華大學, 嘉義縣.
吳武典. (1994). 從 [變] 的觀點談青少年偏差行為的輔導: 教師天地.
吳武典. (1997). 國中偏差行爲學生學校生活適應之探討. [School Adjustment of Junior High Students with Deviant Behaviors]. 教育心理學報(29), 25-49. doi: 10.6251/bep.19970901.2
李文傑, & 吳齊殷. (2004). 棒打出壞子?: 青少年暴力行為的連結機制. Taiwanese Sociology(7), 1-46.
李昭鋆. (2011). 影響臺灣青少年偏差行為之貫時性研究-以 TEPS 資料分析為例.
沈重宗. (2013). 增強制約運用、負向情緒表現、活動成效認知對台灣地區高中職五專學生偏差行為出現之影響. [The Effects of Deviant Behavior on Enhanced Constraints, Negative Emotions and Effectiveness of Schools Activities]. 學校行政(85), 97-117. doi: 10.3966/160683002013050085005
阮孝齊. (2015). 國中學生學校歸屬感影響模式之研究. [The Effect of School Belonging in Junior High School Students]. 當代教育研究季刊, 23(3), 81-123. doi: 10.6151/cerq.2015.2303.03
邱皓政. (2011). 結構方程模式: LISREL 的理論, 技術與應用: 雙葉書廊.
侯崇文. (2001). 家庭結構、家庭關係與青少年偏差行爲探討. [Family Structure, Family Relationships, and Delinquency]. 應用心理研究(11), 25-43.
徐美玲. (2007). 青少年早期社會關係與其心理健康、偏差行爲、快樂感相關性之探討. [A Correlational Study of Social Relationships, Mental Health, Deviant Behaviors, and Happiness among Young Adolescents]. 新臺北護理期刊, 9(2), 23-34. doi: 10.6540/ntjn.2007.2.003
徐淑美. (2004). 家庭與學校因素對國中生偏差行為影響研究. (碩士), 南華大學, 嘉義縣.
翁國峰. (2008). 非行同儕, 負向情緒與效能影響少年偏差行為發展之研究.
高迪理. (1991). 社會支持體系概念之架構之探討.
張如欣. (2011). 國中生偏差行為因素之研究. 臺北大學. Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database. (2011年)
張春興. (2011). 張氏心理學辭典: 臺灣東華.
張雲龍. (2016). 家庭與學校知覺影響高中職生偏差行為之探討. [A study on the influence of the family and school perception for senior high school students’ deviant behavior]. 輔導與諮商學報, 38(1), 61-82.
張楓明. (2011). 學業層面之參與、抱負、自我效能及緊張因素對初次偏差行為影響之縱貫性研究. [A Longitudinal Research on the Effects of Involvement, Commitment, Self-efficacy, and Strain from Academic Aspect on Onset of Delinquency]. 當代教育研究季刊, 19(3), 39-81. doi: 10.6151/cerq.2011.1903.02
教育部校園安全暨災害防救通報處理中心. (2016). 教育部104年各級學校校園安全及災害事件統計分析報告: 臺灣：教育部校園安全暨災害防救通報處理中心.
陳秀華. (2006). 家庭結構與學生知覺之家庭關係對國中生偏差行為的影響研究—以基隆地區為例. (碩士), 銘傳大學, 台北市.
陳怡如. (2013). 性別與偏差行為的階級結構：「權力–控制理論」的再檢視. 臺北大學. Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database.
陳易甫, 吳齊殷, & 林桂琇. (2009). 父母教養與青少年偏差行為的長期動態關聯: 一個群組成長軌跡模型.
陳金定. (2010). 青少年發展與適應問題: 理論與實務: 心理.
黃俊傑, & 王淑女. (2001). 家庭、自我概念與青少年偏差行為. [Family, Self-concept and Deviant Behaviors of Adolescents]. 應用心理研究(11), 45-68.
黃郁珉. (2009). 國中生人格特質、知覺教師管教方式與偏差行為之關係研究. (碩士), 國立臺中教育大學, 台中市.
黃禎貞, & 林世華. (2010). 台灣與美國青少年心理健康泛文化比較之研究. [A Comparison of Mental Health for Youth in Taiwan and the United States]. 中華心理衛生學刊, 23(3), 465-491.
黃德祥. (2000). 青少年身心發展與輔導: 輔導通訊.
楊曙戎. (2010). 台灣高中職生社經地位、母子依附、師生互動與偏差行為相關之研究─以TEPS資料庫為例. 臺北教育大學. Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database. (2010年)
董旭英. (2009). 生活壓迫事件、社會支持、社會心理特質與台灣都會區國中生偏差行為之關係. [Relationships among Coercion, Social Support, social-psychological Characteristics and Delinquency of Junior High School Students in Taiwan Metropolitan Areas]. 青少年犯罪防治研究期刊, 1(1), 129-164.
劉盈芳. (2011). 學校依附感與教師支持. 臺北大學. Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database. (2011年)
劉梅真, 黃鈺婷, 張明宜, & 吳齊殷. (2006). 青少年所處環境脈絡對偏差行為之影響. North American Chinese Sociologists Association.
蔡文輝. (1993). 社會學: 三民書局.
鄭鈺群. (2011). 高中職生參與補習、壓力知覺、負面文化對偏差行為影響之研究-以TEPS資料庫分析為例. 臺北教育大學. Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database.
蕭佳純, 董旭英, & 饒夢霞. (2009). 以結構方程式探討家庭教育資源、學習態度、班級互動在學習成效的作用. [The Effects of Family Resources, Learning Attitudes and Class Interaction on Academic Performances by Using Structure Equation Modeling]. 教育科學研究期刊, 54(2), 135-162.
賴保禎, & 賴美玲. (2003). 新訂賴氏人格測驗指導手冊. 台北市: 千華.
譚子文, & 范書菁. (2010). 依附關係、參與傳統活動、社會緊張因素與台灣地區青少年外向性偏差行為及內向性偏差行為關聯性之研究. [The Relationship among Attachment, Involvement, Social Strain and Taiwanese High School Students' Delinquency]. 輔導與諮商學報, 32(1), 17-42.
譚子文, & 張楓明. (2012). 緊張因素, 接觸偏差同儕及低自我控制與青少年偏差行為關聯性之研究. 台中教育大學學報.
譚子文, & 張楓明. (2013). 依附關係、低自我控制及接觸偏差同儕與青少年偏差行為關係之研究. [The Effects of Attachment, Low Self-control and Deviant Peer Relationships on Delinquency of Junior High School Students in Taiwan]. 當代教育研究季刊, 21(4), 81-120. doi: 10.6151/cerq.2013.2104.03
蘇裕翔. (2011). 父母參與對子女認知能力和行為表現的影響. 臺北大學.
Available from Airiti AiritiLibrary database.

二、英文文獻
Agnew, R. (1985). A revised strain theory of delinquency. Social Forces, 64(1), 151-167.
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47-88. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x
Agnew, R. (2003). An integrated theory Of the adolescent peak in offending. Youth & Society, 34(3), 263-299. doi: 10.1177/0044118X02250094
Agnew, R., Brezina, T., Wright, J. P., & Cullen, F. T. (2002). Strain, personality traits, and delinquency： Extending general strain theory. Criminology, 40(1), 43-72. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00949.x
Alberts, A., Elkind, D., & Ginsberg, S. (2007). The personal fable and risk-taking in early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(1), 71-76. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9144-4
Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54(5), 317-326. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.5.317
Bao, W. N., Haas, A., Chen, X., & Pi, Y. (2014). Repeated strains, social control, social learning, and delinquency: Testing an integrated model of general strain theory in China. Youth & Society, 46(3), 402-424.
Bao, Z., Zhang, W., Lai, X., Sun, W., & Wang, Y. (2015). Parental attachment and Chinese adolescents' delinquency: The mediating role of moral disengagement. Journal Of Adolescence, 44, 37-47. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.06.002
Barnett, O., Miller-Perrin, C. L., & Perrin, R. D. (2005). Family violence across the lifespan: An introduction: Sage Publications, Inc.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238-246. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Berlin, K. S., Parra, G. R., & Williams, N. A. (2014). An introduction to latent variable mixture modeling (part 2): longitudinal latent class growth analysis and growth mixture models. J Pediatr Psychol, 39(2), 188-203. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jst085
Bolland, K. A., Bolland, A. C., Bolland, J. M., Church, W. T., Hooper, L. M., Jaggers, J. W., & Tomek, S. (2016). Trajectories of school and community connectedness in adolescence by gender and delinquent behavior Journal of Community Psychology, 44(5), 602-619. doi: 10.1002/jcop.21789
Bowling, A. (2014). Research methods in health: investigating health and health services: McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Brame, R., Bushway, S. D., Paternoster, R., & Turner, M. G. (2014). Demographic patterns of cumulative arrest prevalence by ages 18 and 23. Crime & Delinquency, 60(3), 471-486. doi: 10.1177/0011128713514801
Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., . . . Vitaro, F. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency：A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 222-245. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.222
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. Readings on the development of children, 2, 37-43.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21(2), 230-258. doi: 10.1177/0049124192021002005
Celeux, G., & Soromenho, G. (1996). An entropy criterion for assessing the number of clusters in a mixture model. Journal of Classification, 13(2), 195-212. doi: 10.1007/bf01246098
Chao, W. F. (2012). The dynamics of attachment to family and delinquency among Taiwanese adolescents. [臺灣青少年的家庭依附與偏差行為之動態關係]. 犯罪與刑事司法研究(19), 105-135.
Chen, P., & Jacobson, K. C. (2013). Impulsivity moderates promotive environmental influences on adolescent delinquency: a comparison across family, school, and neighborhood contexts. Journal Of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(7), 1133-1143. doi: 10.1007/s10802-013-9754-8
Chen, P., Voisin, D. R., & Jacobson, K. C. (2013). Community Violence Exposure and Adolescent Delinquency. Youth & Society, 48(1), 33-57. doi: 10.1177/0044118X13475827
Cheng, H. L., Mallinckrodt, B., & Wu, L. C. (2005). Anger expression toward parents and depressive symptoms among undergraduates in Taiwan. Counseling Psychologist, 33(1), 72-97.
Cheung, N. W., & Cheung, Y. W. (2008). Self-control, social factors, and delinquency: A test of the general theory of crime among adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(4), 412-430. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9218-y
Chien, Y. L., Gau, S. S., & Gadow, K. D. (2011). Sex difference in the rates and co-occurring conditions of psychiatric symptoms in incoming college students in Taiwan. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52(2), 195-207. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.03.009
Chisăliţă, D., Marcu, R., Mustea, A., & Podea, D. M. (2012). Personality traits and psychopathological factors with predictive value for delinquent behavior. Journal of Psychological & Educational Research, 20(1), 34-44-34-44.
Chung, I. J., Hill, K. G., D., H. J., Gilchrist, L. D., & Nagin, D. S. (2002). Childhood predictors of offense trajectories. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39(1), 60-90. doi: doi:10.1177/002242780203900103
Clinard, M. B. (1974). Sociology of deviant behavior.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310-357. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310
Colarossi, L. G., & Eccles, J. S. (2003). Differential effects of support providers on adolescents' mental health. Social Work Research, 27(1), 19-30.
Costa, F. M., Jessor, R., Turbin, M. S., Qi, D., Zhang, H., & Wang, C. (2005). The role of social contexts in adolescence: Context protection and context risk in the United States and China. Applied Developmental Science, 9(2), 67-85. doi: 10.1207/s1532480xads0902_3
Curcio, A. L., & Mak, A. S. (2016). Adolescent drinking and delinquent activities：Associations and gender differences. Journal of Psychologists & Counsellors in Schools, 26(1), 100-114. doi: 10.1017/jgc.2015.19
Curcio, A. L., Mak, A. S., & George, A. M. (2013). Do adolescent delinquency and problem drinking share psychosocial risk factors? A literature review. Addictive Behaviors, 38(4), 2003-2013. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.12.004
Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16-29. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16
Davies, P. T., & Windle, M. (2001). Interparental discord and adolescent adjustment trajectories: The potentiating and protective role of intrapersonal attributes. Child Development, 72(4), 1163-1178.
Davis, E. D. (1981). Teachers as curriculum evaluators: G. Allen & Unwin.
De Kemp, R. A. T., Scholte, R. H. J., Overbeek, G., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2006). Early adolescent delinquency the role of parents and best friends. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33(4), 488-510.
DeLisi, M., Beaver, K. M., Vaughn, M. G., Trulson, C. R., Kosloski, A. E., Drury, A. J., & Wright, J. P. (2010). Personality, gender, and self-control theory revisited: Results from a sample of institutionalized juvenile delinquents. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 6(1), 31-46.
Demuth, S., & Brown, S. L. (2004). Family structure, family processes, and adolescent delinquency: The significance of parental absence versus parental gender. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 41(1), 58-81. doi: 10.1177/0022427803256236
Elder, G. H. (1994). Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(1), 4-15. doi: 10.2307/2786971
Elder, G. H. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69(1), 1-12. doi: 10.2307/1132065
Erikson, E. (1968). Youth: Identity and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.
Evans, S. Z., Simons, L. G., & Simons, R. L. (2016). Factors that influence trajectories of delinquency throughout adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(1), 156-171. doi: 10.1007/s10964-014-0197-5
Eysenck, H. J. (1990). Genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences the three major dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality, 58(1), 245-261. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00915.x
Frey, A., Ruchkin, V., Martin, A., & Schwab, S. M. (2009). Adolescents in transition: School and family characteristics in the development of violent behaviors entering high school. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 40(1), 1-13.
George, L. K. (1993). Sociological perspectives on life transitions. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 353-373.
Ghazarian, S., & Roche, K. (2010). Social support and low-income, urban mothers：Longitudinal associations with adolescent delinquency. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 39(9), 1097-1108. doi: 10.1007/s10964-010-9544-3
Gomes, J. T., Bertrand, L. D., Paetsch, J. J., & Hornick, J. P. (2003). Self-reported delinquency among Alberta's youth: findings from a survey of 2,001 junior and senior high school students. Adolescence, 38(149), 75-91.
Gore, S., & Eckenrode, J. (1996). Context and process in research on risk and resilience. Paper presented at the An earlier version of this chapter was presented at the Conference on Risk, Resiliency, and Development: Research and Interventions, Kiawah Island, SC, May 28–31, 1992.
Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., & Henry, D. B. (2000). A developmental-ecological model of the relation of family functioning to patterns of delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16(2), 169-198.
Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., Loeber, R., & Henry, D. B. (1998). Relation of family problems to patterns of delinquent involvement among urban youth. Journal Of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(5), 319-333.
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime: Stanford University Press.
Hagan, J., Simpson, J., & Gillis, A. R. (1987). Class in the Household: A Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 92(4), 788-816. doi: 10.1086/228583
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1995). Multivariate data analysis (4th ed.): with readings: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis, 5th. NY: Prentice Hall International.
Hall, G. S. (1904). Adolescence its psychology and its relations to physiology, antropology, sociology, sex, crime, Religion and education (Vol. 2). D. Appleton.: Sidney Appleton.
Hallinan, M. T. (2008). Teacher influences on students' attachment to school. Sociology of Education, 81(3), 271-283. doi: 10.1177/003804070808100303
He, Y., Zaslavsky, A. M., Harrington, D. P., Catalano, P., & Landrum, M. B. (2010). Multiple imputation in a large-scale complex survey: A practical guide. Statistical methods in medical research, 19(6), 653-670. doi: 10.1177/0962280208101273
Hirschi, T. (1969). A control theory of delinquency. Criminology theory: Selected classic readings, 289-305.
Hoeve, M., Dubas, J. S., Gerris, J. R. M., van der Laan, P. H., & Smeenk, W. (2011). Maternal and paternal parenting styles: Unique and combined links to adolescent and early adult delinquency. Journal Of Adolescence, 34(5), 813-827. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.02.004
House, J. S. (1981). Work stress and social support: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
Huey, J. S. J., & Weisz, J. R. (1997). Ego control, ego resiliency, and the Five-Factor Model as predictors of behavioral and emotional problems in clinic-referred children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(3), 404-415. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.106.3.404
Hutchison, E. D. (2010). A life course perspective.
IBM Corp. (2013). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0.
Jones, S. E., Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2011). Personality, antisocial behavior, and aggression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(4), 329-337. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.03.004
Kim, H. S., & Kim, H. S. (2005). Gender differences in delinquent behavior among Korean adolescents. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 35(4), 325-345.
Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling.
Kohlberg, L. (1971). Stages of moral development.
Lahey, B. B., & Waldman, I. D. (2007). Personality dispositions and the development of violence and conduct problems. In D. J. Flannery, A. T. Vazsonyi & I. D. Waldman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior and Aggression: . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lawson, T., & Heaton, T. (2010). Crime and deviance: Palgrave Macmillan.
Light, J. M., Rusby, J. C., Nies, K. M., & Snijders, T. A. B. (2014). Antisocial behavior trajectories and social victimization within and between school years in early adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell), 24(2), 322-336. doi: 10.1111/jora.12055
Liu, Y. L. (2002). The role of perceived social support and dysfunctional attitudes in predicting Taiwanese adolescents' depressive tendency. Adolescence, 37(148), 823-834.
Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88(3), 767-778. doi: 10.1093/biomet/88.3.767
Lynne-Landsman, S. D., Graber, J. A., Nichols, T. R., & Botvin, G. J. (2011). Trajectories of aggression, delinquency, and substance use across middle school among urban, minority adolescents. Aggressive Behavior, 37(2), 161-176. doi: 10.1002/ab.20382
MacCallum, R. C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K. J., & Rucker, D. D. (2002). On the practice of dichotomization of quantitative variables. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 19-40. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.19
MacNeil, G., Stewart, J. C., & Kaufman, A. V. (2000). Social support as a potential moderator of adolescent delinquent behaviors. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 17(5), 361-379.
Markstrom, C. A., Sabino, V. M., Turner, B. J., & Berman, R. C. (1997). The psychosocial inventory of ego strengths: Development and validation of a new Eriksonian measure. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(6), 705-732. doi: 10.1023/a:1022348709532
McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60(2), 175-215. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x
Meadows, S. O. (2007). Evidence of parallel pathways: Gender similarity in the impact of social support on adolescent depression and delinquency. Social Forces, 85(3), 1143-1168.
Mednick, B. R., Baker, R. L., & Carothers, L. E. (1990). Patterns of family instability and crime: The association of timing of the family's disruption with subsequent adolescent and young adult criminality. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19(3), 201-220. doi: 10.1007/BF01537887
Miller, S., Malone, P. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2010). Developmental trajectories of boys' and girls' delinquency: Sex differences and links to Later adolescent outcomes. Journal Of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(7), 1021-1032.
Moffitt, T. E. (2003). Life-course-persistent and adolescent-limited antisocial behavior.
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100(4), 674-701.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. (2015). Mplus version 7.4.
O'Donnell, P., Richards, M., Pearce, S., & Romero, E. (2012). Gender differences in monitoring and deviant peers as predictors of delinquent behavior among low-income urban African American Youth. Journal of Early Adolescence, 32(3), 431-459.
Park, N. S., Lee, B. S., Sun, F., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Bolland, J. M. (2010). Pathways and predictors of antisocial behaviors in African American adolescents from poor neighborhoods. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(3), 409-415. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.10.012
Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44(2), 329-335.
Patterson, G. R., & Yoerger, K. (1993). Developmental models for delinquent behavior Mental disorder and crime (pp. 140-172). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Petts, R. J. (2009). Family and religious characteristics' influence on delinquency trajectories from adolescence to young adulthood. American Sociological Review, 74(3), 465-483. doi: 10.1177/000312240907400307
Phares, E. J., & Chaplin, W. F. (1997). Introduce to personality (4 th): New York: Longman.
Piaget, J. (1971). The theory of stages in cognitive development.
Powell, D., Perreira, K. M., & Harris, K. M. (2010). Trajectories of delinquency from adolescence to adulthood. Youth & Society, 41(4), 475-502.
Rajan, S., Namdar, R., & Ruggles, K. V. (2015). Aggressive and Violent Behaviors in the School Environment Among a Nationally Representative Sample of Adolescent Youth. Journal of School Health, 85(7), 446-457. doi: 10.1111/josh.12272
Ram, N., & Grimm, K. J. (2009). Methods and measures：Growth mixture modeling： A method for identifying differences in longitudinal change among unobserved groups. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33(6), 565-576. doi: 10.1177/0165025409343765
Robins, R. W., John, O. P., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1996). Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled boys: Three replicable personality types. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(1), 157-171. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.1.157
Romero, E., Luengo, M. A., & Sobral, J. (2001). Personality and antisocial behaviour：Study of temperamental dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(3), 329-348. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00139-2
Ruiz, M. A., Pincus, A. L., & Schinka, J. A. (2008). Externalizing pathology and the five-factor model- A meta-analysis of personal- ity traits associated with antisocial personality disorder, substance use disorder, and their co-occurrence. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22(4), 365-388.
Samuel, D. B., & Widiger, T. A. (2008). A meta-analytic review of the relationships between the five-factor model and DSM-IV-TR personality disorders：A facet level analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(8), 1326-1342. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.07.002
SAS Institute. (2014). Base SAS 9.4 Procedures Guide.
Schaeffer, C. M., Petras, H., Ialongo, N., Poduska, J., & Kellam, S. (2003). Modeling growth in boys' aggressive behavior across elementary school: links to later criminal involvement, conduct disorder, and antisocial personality disorder. Developmental Psychology, 39(6), 1020-1035.
Sentse, M., Ormel, J., Veenstra, R., Verhulst, F. C., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2011). Child temperament moderates the impact of parental separation on adolescent mental health: The trails study. Journal Of Family Psychology: JFP: Journal Of The Division Of Family Psychology Of The American Psychological Association (Division 43), 25(1), 97-106. doi: 10.1037/a0022446
Shek, D. T. L., & Lin, L. (2016). Delinquent behavior in high school students in Hong Kong: Sociodemographic, personal, and family determinants. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 29(1, Supplement), S61-S71. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2015.10.009
Siegel, L. J., & Welsh, B. C. (2016). Juvenile delinquency: The core: Nelson Education.
Sittner, K. J., & Hautala, D. (2016). Aggressive delinquency among north American indigenous adolescents: Trajectories and predictors. Aggressive Behavior, 42(3), 274-286. doi: 10.1002/ab.21622
Stahlkopf, C., Males, M., & Macallair, D. (2010). Testing incapacitation theory: Youth crime and incarceration in California. Crime & Delinquency, 56(2), 253-268. doi: 10.1177/0011128707307227
Stein, J. A., Milburn, N. G., Zane, J. I., & Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (2009). Paternal and maternal influences on problem behaviors among homeless and runaway youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(1), 39-50. doi: 10.1037/a0015411
Stevens, J. (1992). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences.
Thoits, P. A. (1982). Conceptual, methodological, and theoretical problems in studying social support as a buffer against life stress. Journal Of Health And Social Behavior, 23(2), 145-159.
Thornberry, T. P. (1987). Toward an interactional theory of delinquency. Criminology, 25(4), 863-892. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00823.x
Walton, K. E., Krueger, R. F., Elkins, I., D'Accordo, C., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2016). Personality traits predict the developmental course of externalizing: A four-wave longitudinal study spanning age 17 to age 29. Journal of Personality, n/a-n/a. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12245
Wang, M. T., Brinkworth, M., & Eccles, J. (2013). Moderating effects of teacher-student relationship in adolescent trajectories of emotional and behavioral adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 49(4), 690-705.
Warren, M. T., Wray-Lake, L., Rote, W. M., & Shubert, J. (2016). Thriving while engaging in risk? Examining trajectories of adaptive functioning, delinquency, and substance use in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 52(2), 296-310. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039922
White, I. R., Royston, P., & Wood, A. M. (2011). Multiple imputation using chained equations: Issues and guidance for practice. Statistics in Medicine, 30(4), 377-399. doi: 10.1002/sim.4067
Wiesner, M., & Windle, M. (2004). Assessing covariates of adolescent delinquency trajectories: A latent growth mixture modeling approach. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(5), 431-442. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000037635.06937.13
Windle, M. (2000). A latent growth curve model of delinquent activity among adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 4(4), 193-207.
Yamada, S., Pepler, D., Jiang, D., Cappadocia, M. C., Craig, W., & Connolly, J. (2016). Developmental trajectories of adolescent substance use. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 25(1), 33-48. doi: 10.1080/1067828x.2014.884482
Yeung, R., & Leadbeater, B. (2010). Adults make a difference: The protective effects of parent and teacher emotional support on emotional and behavioral problems of peer-victimized adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(1), 80-98.
Zheng, Y., & Cleveland, H. H. (2015). Differential genetic and environmental influences on developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal Of Adolescence, 45, 204-213. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.006