現今社會家庭結構轉變，使得生育子女數漸少，造成少子化的現象產生，若以家庭資源固定的現況來說，子女數越少的家庭，相對受到越多的關愛，且把子女捧在手心當成寶的社會現象，造成現今的媽寶現象。另外，臺灣教育久受文憑主義、升學主義等意識形態所影響，父母對於子女亦有較高的期望，為強化其競爭力，以進入好的學校，多數求好心切的父母，要求子女參與校內的課後輔導、校外補習班、或家教等形式的教學活動，補習也成為現今教育重要的議題。本研究以近年社會輿論極為關注的媽寶行為覺知為主要探討議題，探討參與課後補習學生的媽寶行為覺知（生活、人際）、成就動機、補習學習投入（行為投入、情感投入、認知投入）是否會影響到補習學習價值。採用便利取樣的方式進行問卷調查，有效樣本數為375人。並將有效樣本透過SPSS進行信度及效度分析，進一步以AMOS進行模型驗證。研究結果顯示：一、生活媽寶行為覺知、人際媽寶行為覺知對於成就動機有顯著影響；二、成就動機對於補習行為投入、補習情感投入、補習認知投入有顯著影響；三、補習行為投入、補習情感投入、補習認知投入對於補習學習價值皆有顯著影響；四、各構面間具有間接影響；代表補習班教師需投注多點心力在媽寶行為覺知較高的學生，協助其能夠更投入於補習班學習中。

The changes of family structure lead to the trend of having fewer children in nowadays society. The limited resources of family turned out the spoiled children that parents may overindulged their children. Besides, the credentialism affects the parents to have higher expectations of cultivating their kids to entering a better school. Thus, there are more and more parents send their kids to cram schools, or individual tutoring after school classes. The present study aims to explore the relations between the perceptions of parental monitoring of daily life and interpersonal relationships, goal achievement motivation, engagement of joining cram schools on behavior, affection, and cognition, and the value of joining cram schools. There were 375 data collected by Convenient sampling. Then, the reliability and validity of the valid data was analyzed using SPSS, and the research model was verified using AMOS. The results showed that: (1) The perceptions of parental monitoring of daily life and interpersonal relationships both have significantly positive relations to goal achievement motivations; (2) Goal achievement motivation has significantly positive relations to engagements of joining cram schools on behavior, affection, and cognition; (3) All of the engagement of joining cram schools have significantly positive relations to the perceive values of cram schools; (4) There are indirect effects between variable. The results form a main implication that the teachers need to pay their attentions on the spoiled children to help them to be more engaged in cram school learning.

王秀槐、林政佑（2020）。學習是為了義務或快樂：儒家文化脈絡下臺灣高中生學習滿足感的雙元取徑研究。教育科學研究期刊，65（1），271-296。
仲雪梅（2011）。我國研究生學習投入的影響因素分析（未出版之碩士論文）。華東師範大學，中國上海市。
余安邦（1991）。探討影響成就動機的家庭社會化因素之探討。中央研究院民族學研究所集刊，71，87-132。
余安邦、楊國樞（1987）。社會取向成就動機與個我取向成就動機：概念分析與實徵研究。中央研究院民族學研究所集刊，64，51-98。
你是媽寶嗎？十大媽寶病徵！（2015年2月7日）。DailyView網路溫度計。取自http://dailyview.tw/Daily/2015/02/07
吳明隆（2009）。結構方程模式：AMOS的操作與應用（第二版）。臺北市：五南圖書。
吳明隆、涂金堂（2012）。SPSS與統計應用分析（第二版）。臺北市：五南。
吳知賢（1990）。學習動機的研究--成就動機、制握信念、學得無助、歸因理論的文獻探討。初等教育學報，3，277-326。
吳海助、林章榜（2007）。故態復萌運動行為的期望價值信念探討。臺中教育大學體育學系系刊，2，41-46。
吳舒靜（2014）。臺灣大專校院學生學習投入對學習發展影響之研究（未出版之博士論文）。國立暨南國際大學，南投縣。
呂怡蒨（2010）。獨生子女與非獨生子女父母期望與子女成就動機之相關研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立嘉義大學，嘉義市。
呂重毅（2010）。花蓮地區國民中學兼任行政教師成就動機、情緒智力與工作滿意度之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。私立慈濟大學，花蓮市。
李佩芬、陳念怡（2010年6月）。你家也有「慣寶寶」嗎？親子天下雜誌，13。取自http://www.parenting.com.tw/article
李佩芬、陳念怡（2014年6月）。「爹寶」、「媽寶」養成關鍵：爸媽放不了手。親子天下雜誌。取自http://www.cw.com.tw/article/article.action?id=5052851
李旻樺（2001）。高中學生之自我效能、成功期望、學習任務價值與課業學習動機調整策略之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立彰化師範大學，彰化市。
李雪莉（2007）。別當直升機父母。天下雜誌，368，106-115。
李雅婷（2013）。教師思考風格、成就動機與工作投入關係之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
林小慧、郭哲宇、吳心楷（2021）。學生學習投入、好奇心、教師集體層級變項與科學探究的關係：跨層級調節式中介效果之探討。教育科學研究期刊，66（2），75-110。
林世名（2012）。中學體育班學生之心理需求、期望價值與職業興趣之關係。（未出版之碩士論文）。國立屏東科技大學，屏東縣。
林秀姿（2014年5月25日）。天下的「媽寶」都是一樣的父母造成。聯合新聞報。取自http://city.udn.com/344/5101935
林秀珍（2007）。經驗與教育探微-杜威教育哲學之詮釋。臺北市:師大書苑。
林欣怡（2015）。學習興趣、自我效能與學習價值對八年級學生科學學習成就之影響─以 TIMSS2011 臺灣為例（未出版碩士論文）。明道大學，彰化縣。
林姿君（2017）國中生媽寶知覺與智能信念及技能求助行為之相關研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
林章榜（2004）。運動期望與價值量表之編製—以Eccles的期望-價值理論為基礎之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣體育大學，臺中市。
林章榜（2007 a）。運動教育模式對提昇運動期望與價值信念之研究。體育學報，40（3），115-127。
林章榜（2007 b）。高中學生參與游泳意圖的期望價值之差異。生物與休閒事業研究，5（1），49-57。
林萃芬（2014年7月）。媽寶來了：當員工滯留於青春期。能力雜誌。取自http://www.fannyeq.com.tw/2014/07/10/1881/
洪榮昭、黃玉君、簡傑（2020）。創業課程接受模式：整合性探討課程易理解性、認知有用性和課程參與態度對創業意圖的影響。課程與教學，23（2），77-104。
胡清暉、曹婷婷（2015年10月5日）。媽寶大學生高職底較少。中時電子報。取自http;//www.chinatimes.com/newspapers/20151005000335-260114
唐宜嘉（2015年12月20日）。媽寶　大學新課題。喀報，242。取自http://castnet.nctu.edu.tw/castnet/article/8983?issueID=591
徐光國（2003）。婚姻與家庭。臺北市：楊智。
張芳全、張嘉芸（2020）。馬公國中生家庭社經地位與英語學習成就之研究：三個英語學習動機中介變項為例。學校行政，128，120-154。
張春興（2000）。教育心理學：三化取向的理論與實踐。臺北市：東華。
張家豪（2011）。專職講師成就動機、工作特徵、關鍵成功因素及競爭策略之個案研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣科技大學，臺北市。
張偉豪（2011）。SEM論文寫作不求人。臺北市：鼎茂。
張鈿富（2012）。大學生學習投入理論與評量實務之探討。高等教評鑑，41-62。
張嘉恩（2010）。高職餐飲科學生的成就動機與思考風格及其關係之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
張瀞文（2013）。沒有「寶媽」哪來「媽寶」大學生？商業週刊。取自http://www.businessweekly.com.tw/KWebArticle.aspx?id=52081
莊婉妮（2005）。高雄市國中資優班學生父母教養方式與成就動機關係之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立高雄師範大學，高雄市。
許緯業（2014）。父母督導行為與媽寶行為覺知對高職生拖延習慣與自我調節學習之相關研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
陳育蒼、戴凱欣（2020）。正向心態對初始興趣、維持興趣及動手做科學創作競賽學習價值之相關研究。教育科學研究期刊，65（1），247-270。
陳旻、溫金豐（2004）。女性公務人員的成功恐懼與事業成就發展。T&D飛訊，21，1-10。
陳玟文（2016）。「媽寶」現象之成因及其對兒童學習與人格特質影響之分析－東山國小學生個案研究（未出版之碩士論文）。私立佛光大學，宜蘭縣。
陳思羽（2007）。台灣大學舞蹈系學生期望價值信念之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立台灣體育大學，臺中市。
陳淑玲（2006）。高職餐飲管理科學生內外在動機、學習任務價值與自我調整學習之關係（未出版之碩士論文）。國立屏東科技大學，屏東市。
陳惠珍（2010）。國中生對任課教師自主知覺、自主動機與學習投入之關係研究—以數學科為例（未出版之碩士論文）。國立彰化師範大學，彰化市。
彭菊仙（2016）。管教的勇氣：該館就要管，你要幫孩子變得更好。臺北市：時報出版。
黃小清（2016）。爸媽必看：寫完這25提親子測驗就知道你自己有沒有叫出「媽寶」。商業週刊。取自http://www.businessweekiy.com.tw/KBlogArticle.aspx?id=15370
黃明月、洪榮昭、譚華德、葉建宏、葉貞妮、郝永崴（2021）。數位遊戲式泰語學習：語言焦慮、自我效能對於情意表現因素及學習價值之相關分析。數學學習科技期刊，13（2），87-117。
黃建通（2020)）。工程专业学生学习投入的实证研究-以建筑估量学专业为。教育与教学研究，2（1），59-69。
黃春梅（2016）。技藝教育學生媽寶行覺知對生涯調適力之影響（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
黃若飴、吳淑卿（2020）。成就動機及目標取向對自我效能及學習表現的影響。嶺東體育暨休閒學刊，18，1-20。
黃淑玲（2012）。少子化下的子女。臺灣教育評論月刊，1（5），66-67。
楊致慧、吳明隆、周冰冰（2014）。科技大學學生英文學習投入量表之編制。美和學報，33（1），1-16。
楊珮妤（2005）。中學生父母教育態度、教師期望、生涯抱負與課業任務價值之關係研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立彰化師範大學，彰化市。
當寶貝的後盾　不當直升機父母。（2014年10月）。親子天下。取自http://www.parenting.com.tw/article
話說「媽寶」:能否每個人為自己負點責任？【社論】（2015年10月9日）。聯合新聞網。取自http://udn.com/news/index
詹志禹（2004）。臺灣發明家的內在動機、思考取向及環境機會：演化論的觀點。教育與心理研究，27（4），775-806。
詹志禹（2013）。錯愛孩子的四種方法。親子天下雜誌，51。取自http://www.parenting.com.tw/
廖主民、林章榜（2008）。不同健身運動階段之期望與價值信念的研究。大學體育學刊，10（3），113-122。
廖相如（2003）。桃竹苗四縣市國民小學教師成就動機、制握信念與工作倦怠關係之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立新竹教育大學，新竹市。
賓靜蓀（譯）（2016）。學習動機：決定孩子學習成敗的關鍵（原作者：I. Lehmann）。臺北市：親子天下。（原作出版年：2008）
劉怡妡（2011年10月28日）。「媽寶」養成，女生們避之唯恐不及。yam蕃薯藤新聞。取自http://history.n.yam.com/yam/life/201110/20111028881134.html
盧莉萍（2013年9月18日）。我的情人是「媽寶」嗎？相親銀行。取自http://www.matchbank.com.tw/mobile/media_content81.html
賴淑萍、洪福源（2020）。國小高年級學生知覺教師創意教學，學習投入及幸福感之關係研究。台北海洋科技大學學報，11（2），199-222。
謝吉隆（2012）。臺灣學齡前兒童父母之資訊需求類型與資訊焦慮。圖書館學與資訊科學，38（2），39-51。
謝沛樺（2007）。中學生英語學習動機信念、學習策略、學業情緒與學業成就關係之探討（未出版之碩士論文）。國立屏東科技大學，屏東市。
謝青儒（2002）。父母參與與子女角色概念、性格特質、幸福感及學業表現之相關研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立屏東師範學院，屏東市。
簡茂發（1981）。父母管教子女的基本原則。測驗與輔導，10（5），769-771。
羅美齡（2012）。員工個人背景、人格特質與成就動機對生涯策略之關係：以臺灣南部派遣人員為例（未出版之碩士論文）。國立高雄大學，高雄市。
蘇岱崙（2013年11月）。大調查：缺乏自信的孩子，4成是「媽寶」。親子天下雜誌，51。取自https://www.parenting.com.tw/article/5053410
蘇建文（1976）。國中高、低成就學生心目中父母教養態度之分析。師大教育心理學報，65（5），21-23。
Abedi, G., Rostami, F., & Nadi, A. (2015). Analyzing the dimensions of the quality of life in hepatitis B patientsusing confirmatory factor analysis. Global Journal of Health Science, 7 (7), 22-31.
Acharya, N., & Joshi, S. (2009). Influence of parents' education on achievement motivation of adolescents. Indian Journal Social Science Researches, 6(1), 72-79.
Ahmad, S., Zulkurnain, N. N. A., & Khairushalimi, F. I. (2016). Assessing the fitness of a measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 17(1), 159-168.
Alqurashi, E. (2019). Predicting student satisfaction and perceived learning within online learning environments. Distance Education, 40(1), 133-148. doi:10.1080/01587919.2018.1553562
Altman, D. G., & Bland, J. M. (2011). How to obtain the confidence interval from a p value. British Medical Journal, 343, d2090.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological bulletin, 103(3), 411.
Angell, L. R. (2009). Construct validity of the community college survey of student engagement (CCSSE). Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 33, 564-570.
Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Learning engagement with school: Critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 369-386.
Asikainen, H., & Gijbels, D. (2017). Do students develop towards more deep approaches to learning during studies? A systematic review on the development of students’ deep and surface approaches to learning in higher education. Educational Psychology Review, 29(2), 205-234.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64(6), 359-372.
Aunola, K., Stattin, H., & Nurmi, J. E. (2000). Parenting styles and adolescents' achievement strategies. Journal of Adolescence, 23(2), 205-222.
Bacher-Hicks, A., Goodman, J., & Mulhern, C. (2021). Inequality in household adaptation to schooling shocks: Covid-induced online learning engagement in real time. Journal of Public Economics, 193, 104345.
Bacon, D. R. (2016). Reporting actual and perceived student learning in education research. Journal of Marketing Education, 38(1), 3-6. doi:10.1177/0273475316636732
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1990). Assessing method variance in multitrait-multimethod matrices: The case of self-reported affect and perceptions at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(5), 547-560.
Baldry, A. C., Sorrentino, A., & Farrington, D. P. (2019). Cyberbullying and cybervictimization versus parental supervision, monitoring and control of adolescents' online activities. Children and Youth Services Review, 96, 302-307.
Balli, S. J., Demo, D. H., & Wedman, J. F. (1998). Family involvement with children’s homework: An intervention in the middle grades. Family Relations, 47(2), 149-157.
Barratt, J. M., & Duran, F. (2021). Does psychological capital and social support impact engagement and burnout in online distance learning students?. The Internet and Higher Education, 100821.
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1), 1-103.
Bayless, K. (2013). What is helicopter parenting? Retrieved from http://www.parents.com/parenting/better-parenting/what -is-helicopter-parenting
Bradley-Geist, J., & Olson-Buchanan, J. (2014). Helicopter parents: An examination of the correlates of over-parenting of college students. Education Training, 56(4), 314-328.
Bray, M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. Paris, IIEP, UNESCO.
Bronson, P. (2009, November). How not to helicopter. Newsweek.Retrieved from http://www.newsweek.com/blogs/nurture-shock/2009/11/20/how-not-to-helicopter.html
Brussoni, M., & Olsen, L. L. (2013). The perils of overprotective parenting: Fathers’ persrectives explored. Child: Care, Health and Development, 39(2), 237-245.
Byrne, B. B. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Byrne, B. M. (2016). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications and programming, 3rd edition. Abingdon: Routledge.
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723-733.
Cazan, A. M. (2015).Learning motivation, engagement and burnout among university students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 187, 413-417.
Center for Postsecondary Research School of Education. (2007). National survey of student engagemnet: Annual report. Bloomington, IN: Indian University.
Chan, S. L., Lin, C. C., Chau, P. H., Takemura, N., & Fung, J. T. C. (2021). Evaluating online learning engagement of nursing students. Nurse Education Today, 104985.
Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65(4), 1111-1119.
Chapman, E. (2003). Assessing student engagement rates. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED482269)
Chong, W. H., Liem, G. A. D., Huan, V. S., Kit, P. L., & Ang, R. P. (2018). Student perceptions of self-efficacy and teacher support for learning in fostering youth competencies: Roles of affective and cognitive engagement. Journal of Adolescence, 68, 1-11.
Colavecchio-Van Sickler, S. (2006). Mommy, tell my professor he’s not nice! (Over) involved baby boomer parents-and cell phones-redefine adulthood. Tampa Bay Times. Restrieved from http://www.sptimes.com/2006/06/19/State/Mommy_tell_my_profes.html
Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development (Vol.23, pp. 43-77). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). The flow experience and its significance for human psychology.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & LeFevre, J. (1989). Optimal experience in work and leisure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(5), 815-822.
Davidson, R., & MacKinnon, J. G. (2008). Bootstrap inference in a linear equation estimated by instrumental variables. The Econometrics Journal, 11(3), 443-477.
DeGraaf, P. M. (1986). The impact of financial and cultural resources on educational attainment in the Netherlands. Sociology of Education, 59(4), 237-246.
Ding, L., Kim, C., & Orey, M. (2017). Studies of student engagement in gamified online discussions. Computers & Education, 115, 126-142.
Dmitrieva, J., Chen, C., & Greenberger, E. (2008). Whither the “Whiz kids” went: Asian American students’ transition to college. In G. Li & L. Wang (Eds.), Model minority myths revisited: An interdisciplinary approach to demystifying Asian American education experiences. Charlotte, North Carolina, NC: Information Age.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (1995). In the mind of the actor: the structure of adolescents’achievement task values and expectance—related beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(3), 215-225.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 118-122.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancy-value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101859.
Eccles, J. S., Adler, T., Futterman, R., Goff, S., Kaczala, C., Meece, J., ＆ Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and Achievement Motives, (pp.75-146). San Francisco, CA: W. H.Freeman.
Elbeck, M., & Bacon, D. R. (2015). Toward universal definitions for direct and indirect assessment. Journal of Education for Business, 90(5), 278-283. doi:10.1080/08832323.2015.1034064
Elliot, A. J., Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (Eds.). (2017). Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Epstein, J. L., Clark, L., Salinas, K. C., & Sanders, M. G. (1997). Scaling up school-family-community connections in Baltimore: Effects on student achievement and attendance. Paper presented at the annual meeting on the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.
Farrell, E. F. (2007). Some colleges provide success coachsfor students. The Education Diger, 73(3), New York, NY : W. W. Norton Company.
Fay, J., & Cline, F. (2020). Parenting teens with love and logic: Preparing adolescents for responsible adulthood. NavPress Publishing Group.
Fingerman, K. L., Cheng, Y.-P., Wesselmann, E. D., Zarit, S., Fustenberg, F., & Birditt, K. S. (2012). Helicopter parents and landing pad kids: Intense parental support of grown children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74, 880-896.
Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59, 117-142.
Finn, J. D. (1993). School engagement and students at risk. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Fong, C. J., Kremer, K. P., Cox, C. H. T., & Lawson, C. A. (2021). Expectancy-value profiles in math and science: A person-centered approach to cross-domain motivation with academic and STEM-related outcomes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 65, 101962.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50.
Foster, S., Villanueva, K., Wood, L., Christian, H., & Giles-Corti, B. (2014). The impact of parents' fear of strangers and perceptions of informal social control on children's independent mobility. Health & Place, 26, 60-68.
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59-109.
Furrer, C. J., & Skinner, E. (2003). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children’s academic engagement and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 148-162.
Gao, B. W., Jiang, J., & Tang, Y. (2020). The effect of blended learning platform and engagement on students’ satisfaction——the case from the tourism management teaching. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 27, 100272.
Gittins, C. B., & Hunt, C. (2019). Parental behavioural control in adolescence: How does it affect self-esteem and self-criticism? Journal of Adolescence, 73, 26-35.
Glanville, J. L., & Wildhagen, T. (2007). The measurement of school engagement. Education and Psychoiogical Measurement, 67(6), 1019-1041.
Green, C. P., Navarro-Paniagua, M., Ximénez-de-Embún, D. P., & Mancebón, M. J. (2014). School choice and student wellbeing. Economics of Education Review, 38, 139-150.
Greene, T. G., Marti, C. N., & McClenney, K. (2008). The effort-outcome gap: Differences for African American and Hispanic community college students in student engagement and achievement. Journal of Higher Education, 79, 513-539.
Gunn, H. E., O'Rourke, F., Dahl, R. E., Goldstein, T. R., Rofey, D. L., Forbes, E. E., & Shaw, D. S. (2019). Young adolescent sleep is associated with parental monitoring. Sleep health, 5(1), 58-63.
Gupta, S. K. (2012). The relevance of confidence interval and P-value in inferential statistics. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 44(1), 143-144.
Hair Jr, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage publications.
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W C. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing theory and Practice, 19(2), 139-152.
Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2013). Partial least squares structural equation modeling: Rigorous applications, better results and higher acceptance. Long range planning, 46(1-2), 1-12.
Handelsman, M. M., Briggs, W. L., Sullivan, N., & Towler, A. (2005). A measure of A measure of college student course engagement. The Journal of Educational Research, 98, 184-191.
Helmreich, R. L., & Spence, J. T. (1978). Masculinity and femininity. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Henderson, A., & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A new of evidence. The impact of school, family and community connections on student achievement. Austin, TX: Southwest educational development laboratory annual synthhesis.
Heyder, A., Kessels, U., & Steinmayr, R. (2017). Explaining academic‐track boys’ underachievement in language grades: Not a lack of aptitude but students’ motivational beliefs and parents’ perceptions? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(2), 205-223.
Higgins, E. T. (2006). Value from hedonic experience and engagement. Psychological Review, 113(3), 439-460.
Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: a meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740-763.
Ho, S. E. & Willms, J. D. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology of Education, 69(2), 126-141.
Hong, J. C., Hwang, M. Y., Kuo, Y. C., & Hsu, W. Y. (2015). Parental monitoring and helicopter parenting relevant to vocational stunds’ procastination and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Difference, 42, 139-146.
Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2001). Parent-child interactions and anxiety discorders: Anobservational study. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 1411-1427.
Hulleman, C. S., Kosovich, J. J., Barron, K. E., & Daniel, D. B. (2017). Making connections: Replicating and extending the utility value intervention in the classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(3), 387-404. doi:10.1037/edu0000146
Hunt, J. (2008). Make room for daddy and mommy: Helicopter parents are here! The Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education, 4(1), 9-11.
Izzo, C. V., Weissberg, R. P., Kasprow, W. J., & Fendrich, M. (1999). A longitudinal assessment of teacher perceptions of parent involvement in children’s education and school performance. American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 65-97.
Jiang, Y., Rosenzweig, E. Q., & Gaspard, H. (2018). An expectancy-value-cost approach in predicting adolescent students’ academic motivation and achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 139-152.
Jung, Y., & Lee, J. (2018). Learning engagement and persistence in massive open online courses (MOOCS). Computers & Education, 122, 9-22.
Karaman, M. A., & Watson, J. C. (2017). Examining associations among achievement motivation, locus of control, academic stress, and life satisfaction: A comparison of US and international undergraduate students. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 106-110.
Katsillis, J. & Rubinson, R. (1990). Cultural capital, student achievement, and educational reproduction: The case of Greece. American Sociological Review, 55(2), 270-279. 
Kearsley, G., & Shneiderman, B. (1999). Engagement theory: A framework for technology-based teaching and learning. Retrieved from http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/engage.htm
Kelly, L. M., Becker, S. J., & Spirito, A. (2017). Parental monitoring protects against the effects of parent and adolescent depressed mood on adolescent drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 75, 7-11.
Kenny, D. A., Kaniskan, B., & McCoach, D. B. (2015). The performance of RMSEA in models with small degrees of freedom. Sociological methods & research, 44(3), 486-507.
Kim, D., & Perdue, R. R. (2013). The effects of cognitive, affective, and sensory attributes on hotel choice. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 35, 246-257.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford.
Koretsky, M. D., Vauras, M., Jones, C., Iiskala, T., & Volet, S. (2019). Productive disciplinary engagement in High-and Low-Outcome student groups: Observations from three collaborative science learning contexts. Research in Science Education, 1-24.
Kouros, C. D., Pruitt, M. M., Ekas, N. V., Kiriaki, R., & Sunderland, M. (2016). Helicopter parenting, autonomy support, and college student’s mental health and well-being: The moderating role of sex and ethnicity. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(3), 939-949.
Kuh, G. D. (2003). What we're learning about student engagement from NSSE: Benchmarks for effective educational practices. Change, 35(2), 24-32.
Kuh, G. D. (2009). The national survey of student engagement: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In RGonyea, & G Kuh (Eds.), Using student engagement data in institutional research (pp. 5-20). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Kuh, G. D. (2009). What student affairs professionals need to know about student engagement. Journal of College Student Development, 50(6), 683-706.
Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. H., & Whitt, E. J. (2005). Assessing conditions to enhance educational effectiveness: The inventory for student engagement and success. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Kuo, H. D. & Hauser, R. M. (1995). Trends in family effects on the education of black and white brothers. Sociology of Education, 68(2), 136-160.
Kuo, T. M. L., Tsai, C. C., & Wang, J. C. (2021). Linking web-based learning self-efficacy and learning engagement in MOOCs: The role of online academic hardiness. The Internet and Higher Education, 100819.
Kwon, K. A., Yoo, G., Bingham, G. E. (2016). Helicopter parenting in emerging adulthood: Support or barrier for Korean college students’ psychological adjustment? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(1), 136-145.
Lahti, T., Halko, M. L., Karagozoglu, N., & Wincent, J. (2019). Why and how do founding entrepreneurs bond with their ventures? Neural correlates of entrepreneurial and parental bonding. Journal of Business Venturing, 34(2), 368-388.
Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Roesch, S. C. (2004). Pathways to self-esteem in late adolescence: The role of parent and peer attachment, empathy, and social behaviours. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 703-716.
Lawson, M. A. (2017). Commentary: Bridging student engagement research and practice. School Psychology International, 38(3), 221-239.
Lee, D. K. (2016). Alternatives to p value: Confidence interval and effect size. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 69(6), 555-562.
LeMoyne, T., & Buchanan, T. (2011).Does “hovering” matter? Helicopter parenting and its effect on well-being. Sociological Spectrum, 31(4), 399-418. doi: 10.1080/02732173.2011.57403
Lipka, S. (2005). Some helicopter parents play politics to protect their children’s interests. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 52(17), A22.
Liu, X. X., Gong, S. Y., Zhang, H. P., Yu, Q. L., & Zhou, Z. J. (2021). Perceived teacher support and creative self-efficacy: The mediating roles of autonomous motivation and achievement emotions in Chinese junior high school students. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 39, 100752.
Loes, C., Pascarella, E., & Umbach, P. (2012). Effects of diversity experiences on critical thinking skills: Who benefits? Journal of Higher Education, 83(1), 1-25.
Loh, E. K. (2019). What we know about expectancy-value theory, and how it helps to design a sustained motivating learning environment. System, 86, 102119.
Love, H., May, R. W., Cui, M., & Fincham, F. D. (2020). Helicopter parenting, self-control, and school burnout among emerging adults. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(2), 327-337.
Luebbe, A. M., Mancini, K. J., Kiel, E. J., Spangler, B. R., Semlak, J. L., & Fussner, L. M. (2018). Dimensionality of helicopter parenting and relations to emotional, decision-making, and academic functioning in emerging adults. Assessment, 25(7), 841-857.
Lum, L (2006). Handling “Helicopter Parents”. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 23(20), 40-43.
Maccoby, E. E. (1984). Socialization and development change. Child Development, 55(2), 317-328.
Markus, H. R. & Kitayama, K. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
Martinez, I., & Garcia, J. F. (2007). Parenting styles and adolescents’ self-esteem in Brazil. Psychological Reports, 100, 731-745.
McElhaney, K. B., & Allen, J. P. (2012). Sociocultural perpectives on adolescent autonomy. In P. Kerig, M. Shulz, & S. T. Hauser (Eds.), Adolescence and beyond (pp. 161-176). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 155-172. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.002
Moreira, P. A., Dias, A., Matias, C., Castro, J., Gaspar, T., & Oliveira, J. (2018). School effects on students' engagement with school: Academic performance moderates the effect of school support for learning on students' engagement. Learning and Individual Differences, 67, 67-77.
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality: A clinical and experimental study of fifty men of college age. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Newmann, F. M., Wehlage, G. G., & Lamborn, S. D. (1992). The significance and sources of student engagement. In F. M. Newmann (Ed.), Student engagement and achievement in American secondary schools (pp. 11-39). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Nicholl, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328-346.
Nora, A. (2006). The nora student engagement model. Retrieved from http://cahsi.cs.utep.edu/Portals/0/The%20Nora%20Student%20Engagement%20Model.pdf
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric methods. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Nelson, L. J. (2012). Black hawk down? Establishing helicopter parenting as a distinct construct from other forms of parental control during emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 1177-1190. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.03.007
Pallas, A. M., Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L. & Cadigan, D. (1987). Children who do exceptionally well in first grade. Sociology of Education, 60(4), 257-271.
Pan, Y., Gauvain, M., & Schwartz, S. J. (2013). Do parents’ collectivistic tendency and attitudes toward filial piety facilitate autonomous motivation amog young Chinese adolescents? Motivation and Emotion, 37(4), 701-711.
Pintrich, P. R., & De Goot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33-40.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications. (2nd ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior research methods, 40(3), 879-891.
Putwain, D. W., Symes, W., Nicholson, L. J., & Becker, S. (2018). Achievement goals, behavioural engagement, and mathematics achievement: A mediational analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 12-19.
Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Rozek, C. S., Hyde, J. S., Svoboda, R. C., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2015). Gender differences in the effects of a utility-value intervention to help parents motivate adolescents in mathematics and science. Journa of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 195-206. doi:10.1037/ a0036981
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Education Psychology, 25, 54–67.
Schiffrin, H. H., Liss, M., Miles-McLean, H., Geary, K. A., Erchull, M. J., & Tashner, T. (2014). Helping or hovering? The effects of helicopter parenting on college students’ well-being. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 548-557. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9716-3.
Schlechty, P. C. (2011). Engaging students: The next level of working on the work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Segrin, C., Woszidlo, A., Givertz, M., Bauer, A., & Murphy, T. M. (2012). The association between over-parenting, parent-child communication, and entitlement and adaptive traits in adult children. Family Relations, 61(2), 237-252.
Seldin, T. (2017). How To Raise An Amazing Child the Montessori Way: A Parents' Guide to Building Creativity, Confidence, and Independence. Penguin.
Seo, K., Dodson, S., Harandi, N. M., Roberson, N., Fels, S., & Roll, I. (2021). Active learning with online video: The impact of learning context on engagement. Computers & Education, 165, 104132.
Shweder, R., & Sullivan, M. (1993). Cultural psychology: Who needs it? Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 497-523.
Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and learning engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4), 571-581.
Steegh, A., Höffler, T., Höft, L., & Parchmann, I. (2021). Exploring science competition participants’ expectancy-value perceptions and identification: A latent profile analysis. Learning and Instruction, 74, 101455
Stewart, K. E., Sitney, M. H., Kaufman, K. L., DeStefano, J., & Bui, T. (2019). Preventing juvenile sexual offending through parental monitoring: a comparison study of youth’s experiences of supervision. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 25(1), 16-30.
Tam, H. L., Kwok, S. Y., Hui, A. N., Chan, D. K. Y., Leung, C., Leung, J., & Lai, S. (2021). The significance of emotional intelligence to students’ learning motivation and academic achievement: A study in Hong Kong with a Confucian heritage. Children and Youth Services Review, 121, 105847. 
Taylor, M. (2006). Helicopter, snowplows, and bulldozers: Managing students’ parents. The Bulletin, 74(6), 13-21.
Teachman, J. D. (1987). Family background, educational resources, and educational attainment. American Sociological Review, 52, 548-557.
Teachman, J. D., & Paasch, K. (1998). The family and educational aspirations. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 704-714.
The University of Tennessee of Chattanooga (2005). UTC working to enhance learning engagement. Retrieved from http://www.utc.edu/university-relations/news-center/archive/2005/qep.php
Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Applied Psychological Measurement, 31(3), 245-248.
Trowler, V. & Trowler, P. (2010). Student engagement evidence summary. York Science Park, UK: Higher Education Academy.
Trowler, V. & Trowler, P. (2011). Learning engagement: Conceptual overview. London: The Leadership Foundation for Higher Education. Vroom, V. C.(1964). Work and motivation. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Trumbull, E., & Rothstein-Fisch, C. (2011). The intersection of culture and achievement motivation. School Community Journal, 21(2), 25-53.
van Ingen, D. J., Freiheit, S. R., Steinfeldt, J. A., Moore, L. L., Wimer, D. J., Knutt, A. D., Scapinello, S., & Roberts, A. (2015). Helicopter partenting: The effect of an overbearing caregiving style on peer attachment and self-efficacy. Journal of College Counseling, 18(1), 7-20.
Volet, S., Jones, C., & Vauras, M. (2019). Attitude-, group- and activity-related differences in the quality of preservice teacher students’ engagement in collaborative science learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 73, 79-91.
Wigfield, A., Rosenzweig, E. Q., & Eccles, J. S. (2017). Achievement Values. Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and Application, 116.
Wigfield, A., Tonks, S., & Klauda, S. L. (2016). Expectancy-value theory. In K. R. Wentzel, & D. B. Miele (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school, Routledge (2ed, pp.55-74), Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Routledge.
Williams, T., Williams, K., Kastberg, D., & Jocelyn, L. (2005). Achievement and affect in OECD nations. Oxford Review of Education, 31, 517-545.
Yazzie-Mintz, E. (2010). Charting the path form engagement to achievement: A report on the 2009 high school survey of learning engagement. Bloomington, IN: Center for Evaluation & Education Policy.
Yin, H., & Ke, Z. (2017). Students’ course experience and engagement: an attempt to bridge two lines of research on the quality of undergraduate education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42(7), 1145-1158.
Zainudin, A. (2015). SEM made simple, a gentle approach to learning structural equation modeling. Selangor, MY: MPWS Rich Publication.
Zusho, A. (2017). Toward an integrated model of student learning in the college classroom. Educational Psychology Review, 29(2), 301-324.