政論節目是一個引起社會、媒體界，以及政治圈廣泛討論及批評的一個議題，過去針對台灣政論節目所做的研究有很多，這些研究都提及在台灣的政論節目中，充斥著口水戰、偏頗、對立衝突的語言。然而，這些研究卻沒有針對台灣政論節目的攻擊語言作分析。
　　本文從收集的真實語料出發，分析了台灣三個政論節目：2100全民開講、新聞夜總會、新聞孤狗中用來攻擊他人的語言。結果發現，政論節目的主持人及來賓使用的攻擊策略包含了語言的各個層面，從音韻、構詞、語彙、句法、語義、到語用，呈現了多樣化及創意十足的語言使用。過去的研究發現，台灣政論節目中的語言能夠達到娛樂的效果，而本研究發現此娛樂效果來自於多樣化的語言使用。這些攻擊策略除了達到貶低他人形象的目的以外，有些還可製造幽默或增進團體之間的和諧及團結。
　　本文發現，三個節目中所用的攻擊語言數量差距不大，但各個節目中使用攻擊策略的偏好各不相同。大抵來說，新聞夜總會的語言是最具創意也最多樣化的，這可能跟節目偏向非正式、輕鬆的型態有關;2100全民開講則偏向使用直接的語彙作攻擊，此節目也是三個節目裡最正式、衝突性最強的。同一種策略在新聞夜總會可能是幽默及笑聲的來源，但在2100全民開講中卻很少出現。新聞夜總會和2100全民開講在屬性上均被歸於反對民進黨的政論節目，但兩者使用的攻擊策略及節目風格卻不相同，顯示攻擊性的語言與節目政黨傾向並無直接的關聯。新聞孤狗的節目型態及攻擊策略並沒有像前兩者這麼突出以及兩極化，是處於中間型態，也許是因為風格並不突出，所以播出數月即遭停播的命運。

The phenomenon of political talk show is a hotly discussed, debated, and often criticized issue. Previous studies have pointed out that entertainment and confrontation are two main features of the political talk show. However, these studies did not probe into how entertainment or confrontation is achieved by linguistic devices in discourse.
This present paper is a data-driven study of how the participants in political talk shows employ verbal attack to degrade others and create entertaining effects. We chose three political talk shows in Taiwan as our databank: 2100 People All Talk (2100 全民開講), News Night Club (新聞夜總會), and News Google (新聞孤狗). The linguistic tokens for verbal aggression in the three programs are collected and then analyzed. The result showed that verbal attack tokens covered almost all levels of linguistics, including phonology, morphology, lexicology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. These diversified verbal attacks not only enable the host and guests to denigrate their opponents’ ability and personality but also build conversational humor and reinforce in-group solidarity.
In terms of the frequency of verbal attack, the three talk shows did not show salient difference, but they were different when it comes to the quality and style of the verbal vilification. In general, News Night Club was found to be more humorous, more diversified and less formal in language use, while the verbal attacks in 2100 People All Talk were more direct. Additionally, the atmosphere in 2100 People All Talk was more formal and conflicting. For example, the same linguistic strategy made by the same speaker in News Night Club created collected laughter while the effect of humor did not show up in 2100 People All Talk. We also found out that talk shows which have similar political bias do not necessarily reveal similar styles of rhetorical devices. Although News Night Club and 2100 People All Talk are both anti-DPP talk shows, their styles in terms of verbal attack were not the same. At last, the quality and quantity of verbal attack in News Google are usually between News Night Club and 2100 People All Talk.

Adrjan, Pawel and Javier Muñoz-Basols. 2003. The sound of humor: Linguistic and semantic constraints in the translation of phonological jokes. Journal of Linguistics 16: 239–246
Ahluwalia, R. and Burnkrant, R.E. 2004. Answering question about questions: A persuasion knowledge perspective for understanding the effects of rhetorical questions. Journal of Consumer Research 31: 26-42.
Allan, Keith. 2007. The pragmatics of connotation. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 1047-1057.
Allerton, D.J. 1984. Three (or four) levels of word co-occurrence restriction. Lingua 63:17-40.
Ana, Otto Santa. 1999. ‘Like an animal I was treated’: Anti-immigrant metaphor in US public discourse. Discourse & Society 10:191-224.
Atawneh, Ahmad M. 2009. The discourse of war in the Middle East: Analysis of media reporting. Journal of Pragmatics 41:263-278.
Atkinson, M., D. Kilby, and I. Roca. 1988. Foundations of General Linguistics. 2nd ed. London: Allen & Unwin.
Bach, K. 1999. The myth of conventional implicature. Linguistics and Philosophy: 22:367-421.
Barbe, Katharina. 1995. Irony in Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Baum, Matthew A. 2003. Soft news and political Knowledge: Evidence of absence or absence of evidence? Political Communication 20:173-190.
Beaver, David. 2001. Presupposition and Assertion in Dynamic Semantics.CSLI Publications.
Bennett, W. Lance and Robert M. Entman. 2001. Mediated Politics. Communication in the Future of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Benoit, William. L. 2004. Election outcome and topic of political campaign attacks. Southern Communication Journal 69:348-355.
Benoit, William L. and William T. Wells. 1996. Candidates in Conflict: Persuasive Attack and Defense in the 1992 Presidential Debates. The University of Alabama Press.
Besnier, N. 1993. ‘Reported speech and affect on Nukulaelae Atoll’. Responsibility and Evidence in Oral Discourse, ed. by J. H. Hill, and J. T. Irvine, 161-181. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bhaya, Rukmini. 1985. Telling lies: Some literary and other violations of Grice’s maxim of quality. Nottingham Linguistic Circular 14:53-71.
Billig, Michael, and Katie MacMillan. 2005. Metaphor, idiom and ideology: The search for ‘no smoking guns’ across time. Discourse and Society 16:459-480.
Bitzer, Loyd F. 1981. Political rhetoric. Handbook of Political Communication, ed. by D. Nimmo, and K. Sanders. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Blumler, Jay G. and Kavanagh, Dennis. 1999. The third age of political communication: Influences and features. Political Communication 16:209-230.
Britt Rachelle Galen and Underwood, Marion K. 1997. A developmental investigation of social aggression among children. Developmental Psychology 33:589-600.
Björkqvist, K., K. Osterman, and A. Kaukiainen. 1992. The development of direct and indirect aggressive strategies in males and females. In K. Bjorkqvist & P. Niemela (Eds.), Of Mice and Women: Aspects of Female Aggression (pp. 51-63). San Diego: Academic Press.
Buttny, Richard. 1997. Reported speech in talking race on campus. Human Communication Research 23:477-506.
Chang, Mei-yu. 2000. A Study of the metaphorical usage in the 1998 Taipei mayoral debates. MA thesis, National Tsing Hua University.
Chang Ya-Chiao. 2006. A Study on audience's motivation and attitude of political talk show in Taiwan—the case of “scapegoat” phenomenon, MA Thesis, Chinese Culture University.
Chao, Yuan-ren. 1968. A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. Berkely, California: University of California Press.
Charteris-Black, Jonathan. 2006. Britain as a container: Immigration metaphors in the 2005 election campaign. Discourse and Society 17:563-581.
Chiang, Wen-yu, and Duan, Ren-feng. 2007. Conceptual metaphors for SARS: ‘War’ between whom? Discourse and Society 18:579-602.
Chilton, P. 2004. Analyzing Political Discourse. London and New York: Routledge.
Chiu, Chung-jung. 2004. From public sphere to public television: An analysis of political talk show in public television. MA thesis, Tamkang University.
Chiu, I-feng. 2007. Correlation analysis of audience evaluation and ratings in Taiwan: The case of political discussion programs, MA thesis, National Sun Yat-sen Univerisity.
Chu, Alice Ruth. 2003. Political TV Call-in Shows in Taiwan: Animating Crisis Discourse through Reported Speech. Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.
Clark, Herbert H. 1996. Using Language. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Clark, Herbert H., and Richard J. Gerrig. 1990. Quotations as demonstrations. Language 66:764-805.
Clayman, Steven and John Heritage. 1992. The News Interview: Journalists and Public Figures on the Air. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Clift, Rebecca. 2006. Indexing stance: Reported speech as an interactional evidential. Journal of sociolinguistics 10:569-595.
Cohen, Bernard C. 1963. The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Coulmas, Florian. 1985. Direct and indirect speech: General problems and problems of Japanese. Journal of Pragmatics 9: 41-63.
Cruse, D. Alan. 1986. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: UK.
Cutler, Anne. 1974. On Saying what you mean without meaning what you say. Papers from the 10th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society 117-127.
Dan D. Nimmo and Combs, James E. 1982. The Political Pundits. UK: Greenwood publishing group.
Davis, Richard and Diana Marie Owen. 1998. New Media and American Politics. London: Oxford University.
Deuze, Mark. 2005. What is journalism? Journalism 6:442-464.
Dienhart, John M. 1999. A linguistic look at riddles. Journal of Pragmatics 31:95-125.
Dover, E. D. 2006. Images, Issues, and Attacks: Television Advertising by Incumbents and
Challengers in Presidential Elections. Lanham, MD: Lexington, Rowman & Littlefield.
Dumitrescu, D. 1996. Rhetorical vs. nonrhetorical allo-repetition: The case of Romanian interrogatives. Journal of Pragmatics 26:321-354.
Entman, R. M. 1993. Framing: Towards clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication 43: 51-58.
Fairclough Norman. 1989. Language and Power. New York: Longman.
Fairclough, N. 1995. Critical discourse analysis: The critical study of language. London: Longman.
Ferrari, Federica. 2007. Metaphor at work in the analysis of political discourse: Investigating a ‘preventive war’ persuasion strategy. Discourse and Society 18:603-625.
Fetzer, Anita. 2007. ‘Well if that had been true, that would have been perfectly reasonable.’ Appeals to reasonableness in political interviews. Journal of Pragmatics 39:1342-1359.
Fillmore, Charles J. 1971. Santa Cruz Lectures on Deixis 1971. Berkeley, California: University of California.
Fowler, R. 1991. Critical linguistics. In K. Malmkjaer (ed.). The Linguistics Encyclopedia. London: Routledge.
Fraser, Nancy. 1990. Rethinking the public sphere: A contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy. Social Text 25/26:56-80.
Franklin, Bob. 1997. Social Policy, the Media and Misrepresentation. London: Routledge.
Frege Gottlob. 1948. Sense and reference. The Philosophical Review 57:209-230.
Froehlich, Romy and Burkhard Rüdiger. 2006. Framing political public relations: Measuring success of political communication strategies in Germany. Public Relations Review 32:18-25.
Gamson, W. A. 1999. Policy discourse and the language of the life-world. In J. Gehards and Hitzler, R. (eds.). Eigenwilligkeit und rationalitat sozialer prozesse. Opladen, Germany: Westdeutsche. 127-144.
Gastil, John. 1992. Undemocratic discourse: A review of theory and research on political discourse. Discourse and Society 3:469-500.
Gavriely-Nuri, Dalia. 2008. The ‘metaphorical annihilation’ of the Second Lebanon War (2006) from the Israeli political discourse. Discourse and Society 19:5-20.
Gibbs, Raymond. 1994. The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language and Understanding. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Graber, D. A. 1981. Political languages. Handbook of Political Communication, ed. by D. Nimmo, and K. Sanders, 195-224. CA: Sage.
Graumann, Carl F. 1998. Verbal discrimination: A neglected chapter in the social psychology of aggression. Journal of the Theory of Social Behaviour 1:41-61.
Grice, Herbert. 1975. Logic and conversation. Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 9: Pragmatics, ed. by P. Cole, and J. Morgan, 41-58. New York: Academic Press.
Grundy, P. 2000. Doing Pragmatics. Arnold.
Haberland, H. 1986. Reported speech in Danish. Direct and Indirect Speech, ed. by F. Coulmas, 219-254. Berlin: Mouton de Gruvter.
Habermas, J. 1962. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. The MIT press: Cambridge, MA.
Hall, Peter A. and Rosemary C. R. Taylor. 1996. Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
Halliday, MAK and Matthiessen C. 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. NY: Oxford University Press.
Han, Chung-hye. 2002. Interpreting interrogatives as rhetorical questions. Lingua 112:201-229.
Harris, Sandra. 1991. Evasive action: How Politicians Respond to Questions in Political Interviews? Broadcast talk. eds by Paddy Scanell, 76-99. London: SAGE.
Harrison, Stephen. 1998. The politics of evidence-based medicine in the United Kingdom. Policy & Politics 26:15-31.
Hassan Atifi and Marcoccia, Michel. 2006. Television genre as an object of negotiation: A semio-pragmatic analysis of French political ‘television forum’. Journal of Pragmatics 38:250-268.
Hess-Lüttich, Ernese W. B. 2007. (Pseudo-)argumentation in TV-debates. Journal of Pragmatics 39: 1360-1370.
Holbert, R L. 2005. A typology for the study of entertainment television and politics. American Behavioral Scientist 49: 436-453.
Hollander, B. A. 1995. The ‘news news and the 1992 presidential campaign: Perceived vs. actual political knowledge. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 72:786-798.
Holmes, J., and Marra. 2002. Having a laugh at work: How humor contributes to
workplace culture. Journal of Pragmatics 34: 1683-1710.
Holt, E. 1996. Reporting on talk: The use of direct reported speech in conversation. Research on Language and Social Interaction 29:219-245.
Hong, Hui-Ru. 2003. A linguistic analysis of Mandarin cold jokes. MA thesis, National Taiwan Normal University
Huang, Bing-fen. 1984. A study on questioning and answering strategies in parliamentary interpellations in Taiwan. MA thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
Huang, Li-ya. 2007. An argumentative analysis of the political call-in programs: the case Studies of 2100 All people open talk and Da Hua Xin Wen. MA thesis, Shih Hsin University.
Huddleston, Rodney. 1984. Introduction to the Grammar of English. Cambridge, UL; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hutchby, Ian. 1996. Confrontation Talk: Arguments, Asymmetries, and Power on Talk Radio. London: Routledge.
Hu, Yu-Ying. 1999. A study of question evasion in Mandarin political discourse. MA thesis, National Tsing Hua University.
Ilie, Cornelia. 1999. Question-response argumentation in talk shows. Journal of Pragmatics 31:975-999.
Ilie, Cornelia. 2001. Semi-institutional discourse: The case of talk shows. Journal of Pragmatics 33:209-254.
Indurkhya, B. 1992. Metaphor and Cognition. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Infante, Dominic A. and Charles J. Wigley. 1986. Verbal aggressiveness: An interpersonal model and measure. Communication Monographs 53: 61-69.
Ingram, David. 1978. Typology and universals of personal pronouns. Universals of Human Language, ed. by Joseph H. Greenberg, 214-247. Standford, California: Standford University Press.
Jacobson, Roman. 1956. Fundamentals of Language 2: 90–96.
Jamieson, K. H. 1992. Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ji, Meng. 2007. What is the starting point? In search of a working definition of Chinese idioms. African and Asian Studies 6: 1-11.
Johnson, Donna M. 1994. Who is we? Constructing communities in US-Mexico border discourse. Discourse and Society 5:207-231.
Jones, Jeffrey P. 2006. A cultural approach to the study of mediated citizenship. Social Semiotics 16: 365-383.
Kaid, Lynda Lee and Anne Johnson. 2001. Videostyle in presidential campaigns: Style and content of televised political advertising. UK. Greenwood Publishing Group.
Kaukiainen, Ari, Christina Salmivalli, Kai Björkqvist, Karin Österman, Auli Lahtinen, Anne Kostamo, and Kirsti Lagerspetz. 2001. Overt and covert aggression in work settings in relation to the subjective well-being of employees. Aggressive Behavior 27:360-371.
Kellner, Douglas. 2004. Media propaganda and spectacle in the war on Iraq: A critique of U.S. broadcasting networks. Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies 4: 329-338.
Kim, Young Mie and John Vishak. 2008. Just laugh! You don’t need to remember: The effects of entertainment media on political information acquisition and information processing in political judgment. Journal of Communication 58:338-360.
Klein, Devorah E. and Gregory L. Murphy. 2001. The representation of polysemous words. Journal of Memory and Language 45: 259-282 Klepousniotou, Ekaterini. 2002. The processing of lexical ambiguity: Homonymy and polysemy in the mental lexicon. Brian and Language 81:205-223.
Knight, Kevin and Jonathan Graehl. 1998. Machine transliteration. Computational Linguistics 24:599-612
Koprowshi, M. 2005. Investigating the usefulness of lexical phrases in contemporary
coursebooks, English Language Teaching Journal 59: 322-332.
Kreuz, Roger, and Richard Roberts. 1995. Two cues for verbal irony: Hyperbole and the ironic tone of voice. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 10: 21-31.
Kuo, Sai-hua. 2001a. Reported speech in Chinese political discourse. Discourse Studies 3:181-202.
Kuo, Sai-hua. 2001b. ‘Is there only one China?’: Analyzing the rhetoric of Chinese nationalism in a newspaper article. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 11:283-299.
Kuo, Sai-hua. 2002. From solidarity to antagonism: The uses of the second person singular pronoun in Chinese political discourse. Text 22:29-55.
Kuo, Sai-hua. 2003. ‘You’re a little rabbit in a pack of foxes’: Animal metaphors in Chinese political discourse. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 33:72-100.
Kuo, Sai-hua. 2004. The use of address forms in Chinese political discourse: Analyzing the 1998 Taipei mayoral debates. Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies, New Series 33: 153-172.
Kwak, N, X Wang, and L Guggenheim. 2004. Laughing all the way: The relationship between television entertainment talk show viewing and political engagement among young adults. Paper presented to the Communication Theory and Methodology Division at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. Toronto, Canada.
Lakoff, G., and M. Johnson. 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lauerbach, Gerda. 2007. Argumentation in political talk show interviews. Journal of Pragmatics 39:1388-1419.
Levinson, Stephen C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge, UK; Yew York: Cambridge University Press.
Leona M. English and Irving, Catherine J. 2008, Reflective text issues of knowledge, power, and discourse in researching gender and learning. Adult education Quarterly 58:267-283.
Li, Charles N. 1986. Direct and indirect speech: A functional study. Direct and Indirect Speech, ed. by F. Coulmas, 29-45. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Lin, Hsueh-O. 1998. Reported Speech in Mandarin Conversational Discourse. Doctoral dissertation, National Taiwan Normal University.
Li, Shih-ming. 1995. The Underground Radio Protesting in Taiwan: A Frame Analysis of Call-in Conversations. MA thesis, Tung Hai University.
Livingstone, Sonia, and Peter Lunt. 1994. Talk on television: Audience participation and public debate. London; New York: Routledge.
Lowndes, Vivien, Lawrence Pratchett, and Gerry Stoker. 2006. Local participation: The impact of rules-in-use. Public Administration 84:539-561.
Lucy, J. 1993. The Reflexive Language. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics, Vol.2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Maitland, Karen, and John Wilson. 1987. Pronominal selection and ideological conflict. Journal of Pragmatics 11:495-512.
Mayes, P. 1990. Quotation in spoken English. Studies in Language 14:325-363.
Mayhew, L. 1997. The New Public: Professional Communication and the Means of Social Influence. London and New York: Cambridge University.
Mazzoleni, Gianpietro. 2003. The Media and the growth of Neo-populism in contemporary democracies. The media and neo-populism: a contemporary comparative analysis. eds by Gianpietro Mazzoleni, Julianne Stewart, and Bruce Horsfield. 1-20. UK: Greenwood Publishing Group.
McCarthy, Michael, and Ronald Carter. 2004. ‘There’s millions of them’: Hyperbole in everyday conversation. Journal of Pragmatics 36:149-184.
McLeod, Jack M, Dietram A Scheufele, and Patricia Moy. 1999. Community, communication, and participation: The role of mass media and interpersonal discussion in local political participation. Public Communication 16:315-336.
McManus, John H. 1997. Who's responsible for journalism? Journal of Mass Media Ethics 12:5-13.
McNair, Brain. 1995. Journalism and Democracy: An Evaluation of the Political Public Sphere. London: Routledge.
Michael Pfau, Moy, Patricia, Radler, Barry, and Bridgeman, Michael K. 1998. The influence of individual communication media on public confidence in democratic institutions. Southern Communication Journal 63:91-112.
Mey, Jacob L. 2001. Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
Mio, Jeffery Scott, and Albert N. Albert. 1996. Metaphor: Implications and Applications. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Mio, Jeffery Scott. 1997. Metaphors and Politics. Metaphor and Symbol 12:113-133.
Neuman, W. Russell, Marion R. Just Just, and Ann N. Crigler. 1992. Common Knowledge: News and the Construction of Political Meaning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nicki R. Crick and Grotpeter, Jennifer K. 1995. Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development 66:710-722.
Nimmo, Dan D, and James E. Combs. 1982. The Political Pundits. UK: Greenwood publishing group.
Niven, D., Lichter S. R., and D. Amundson. 2003. The political content of late night comedy. Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 8:118-133.
Noble, James, Robert Biddle, and Ewan Tempero. 2002. Metaphor and metonymy in object-oriented design patterns. Conferences in Research and Practice in Information Technology Series 17. Proceedings of the twenty-fifth Australasian conference on Computer science: 4.
Parker, Frank and John Pickeral. 1985. Echo questions in English. American Speech 60:337-347.
Pepicello, William J. and R. Weisberg. 1983. Linguistics and humor. In J. H. Goldstein and P.E. McGhee (eds.), 59-83.
Perdue Charles W, John E Dovidio, Michael B. Gurtman, and Richard B. Tyler. 1990. Us and Them: Social categorization and the process of intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5:475-486.
Petty, Richard E., John T. Cacioppo, and Martin Heesacker. 1981. Effects of rhetorical questions on persuasion: a Cognitive response analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40:432-440.
Pfau, Michael, Patricia Moy, Barry Radler, Michael K. Bridgeman. 1998. The Influence of Individual Communication Media on Public Confidence in Democratic Institutions. Southern Communication Journal 63:91-112.
Pierre Bourdieu and Thompson, John B. 1991. Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Portner, Paul. 2002. Topicalization and (Non-)Specificity in Mandarin. Journal of Semantics 19:275-287.
Portner, Paul. 2005. What is Meaning? Fundamentals of Formal Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ramscar, Michael and Daniel Yarlett. 2003. Semantic Grounding in Models of Analogy: An Environmental Approach. Cognitive Science 27:41-71.
Riley P. and T. Hollihan. 1981. The 1980 presidential debate: A content analysis of the issues and arguments. Speaker and Gavel 18:47-59.
Ritchie, G. 2000. Describing Verbally Expressed Humour. Proceedings of AISB Symposium on Creative and Cultural Aspects and Applications of AI and Cognitive Science, Birmingham
Roberts, Richard, and Roger Kreuz. 1994. Why do people use figurative language? Psychological Science 5:159-163.
Romaine, Suzanne and Lange Deborah. 2001. The use of like as a marker of reported speech and thought: A case of grammaticalization in progress. American Speech 66:227-279.
Sadock, J.M. 1971. Queclaratives. In: Papers from the Seventh Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society: 223-232.
Sadock, J.M. 1974. Towards a linguistic theory of speech acts. New York: Academic Press.
Sam, Michael P. and Jay Scherer. 2008. Stand up and be counted. International Review for the Sociology of Sport 43:53-70.
Sams, Jessie. 2007. Quoting the unspoken: An analysis of quotations in spoken discourse. Colorado Research in Linguistics 20:1-16.
Scannell, P. and D. Cardiff. 1991. A Social history of British Broadcasting. Basil: Blackwell.
Schiffrin, Deborah. 1994. Approaches to discourse. Oxford: Blackwell.
Schrøder, Kim Christian, Louise Phillips. 2007. Complexifying media power: A study of the interplay between media and audience discourses on politics. Media, Culture & Society 29: 890-915.
Searle, J.R. 1965. What is a speech act? In M. Black, ed., Philosophy in America. New York: Allen and Unwin, 221-239.
Searle, J. R. 1969. Speech acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. R. 1995. The Construction of Social Reality. London: The Penguin Press.
Semino, Elena, and Michela Masci. 1996. Politics is football: Metaphor in the discourse of Silvio Berlusconi in Italy. Discourse and Society 7:243-269.
Shuman, Amy. 1993. ‘Get outta my face’: Entitlement and authoritative discourse. Responsibility and Evidence in Oral Discourse, ed. by J. Hill, and J. Irvine, 135-160. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Siegel, Jeff. 1995. How to get a laugh in Fijian: Code-switching and humor. Language in Society 24:95-110.
Smith, Chris and Ben Voth. 2002. The role of humor in political argument: How ‘strategy’ and ‘lockboxes’ changed a political campaign. Argumentation & Advocacy 39:110-129.
Solopova, Olga. A. 2005. Metaphorical representation of future in British political discourse. Respectus Philologicus 8:161-165.
Spencer, Andrew. 2001. The paradigm-based model of morphosyntax. Transactions of the
Philological Society 99: 279–313.
Stalnaker, Robert. 1974. Pragmatic Presuppositions. In Semantics and Philosophy, eds.
Milton Munitz and Peter Unger, 197-213. New York: New York University Press.
Steven H. Chaffee, Zhao, Xin-shu, and Leshner, Glenn. 1994. Political knowledge and the campaign media of 1992. Communication Research 21:305-324.
Stone, Deborah A. 1988. Policy Paradox and Political Reason. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman.
Sutton, Matthew Luke. 2005. A candidate’s use of aggressive communication and the electorate’s response: predicting presidential election outcomes. MA thesis, West Virginia University.
Tannen, D. 1986. Introducing constructed dialogue in Greek and American conversational and literary narrative. Direct and Indirect Speech, ed. by F. Coulmas, 311-332. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Tamborin, Roni, Rebecca M. Chory, Ken Lachlan, David Westerman, and Paul Skalski. 2008. Talking smack: Verbal aggression in professional wrestling. Communication Studies 59: 242 – 258.
Tannen, D. 1989. Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue, and Imagery in Conversational Discourse. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Thornborrow, Joanna. 2007. Narrative, opinion, and situated argument in talk show discourse. Journal of Pragmatics 39:1436-1453
Tolson, Andrew. 2001. Television Talk Show: Discourse, Performance, Spectacle. London: Routledge.
Toulmin, Stephen Edelston. 1958. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ungerer, F., and H. J. Schmid. 2006. An introduction to Cognitive Linguistics (2nd ed). London: Longman.
Valles, Nizete-Ly and John F. Knutson. 2008. Contingent responses of mothers and peers to indirect and direct aggression in preschool and school-aged children. Aggressive Behavior 34:497-510.
Vancil, David L. 1993. Rhetoric and Argumentation. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Van Dijk, Teun A. 1993. Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse and Society 42:249:283.
Van Dijk, Teun A. 1997. Discourse as Social Interaction. London: Sage Publications.
Van Djik, Teun A. 1998. Ideology: A Muiltidisciplinary Approach. London: Sage Publications.
Van Dijk, Teun A. 2001. Principles of critical discourse analysis. Disocurse Theory and Practice: A Reader. Eds by Margaret Wetherell, Stephanie Taylor, Simeon Yates. SAGE: Open University.
Van Eemeren, H. Frans, and Rob. Grootendorst. 1992. Argumentation, Communication, and Fallacies : A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
Van Rees, M. A. 2007. Discourse analysis and argumentation theory: The case of television talk. Journal of Pragmatics 39:1454-1463.
Van Zoonen. 1992. The woman’s movement and the media: Constructing a public identity. European Journal of Communication 7:453-476.
Willett, Thomas. 1988. A cross-linguistic survey of the grammaticalization of evidentiality. Studies in Language 12:51-97.
William L. Benoit and Wells, William T. 1996. Candidates in Conflict Persuasive Attack and Defense in the 1992 Presidential Debates. The University of Alabama Press.
Wilson, John. 1990. Politically Speaking. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Yang, Yie-jing. 2002. Public, public opinion and media representation. Doctoral dissertation, National Chengchi University.
Young, Dannagal Goldthwaite. 2004. Late-night comedy in election 2000: Its influence on candidate trait ratings and the moderating effects of political knowledge and partisanship. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 48:1-22.
Zillmann, Dolf. 1972. Rhetorical Elicitation of Agreement in Persuasion. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 21:159:165.
Zupnik, Yael-Janette. 1994. A pragmatic analysis of the use of person deixis in political discourse. Journal of Pragmatics 21:339-383.
李岷愷 (2004)。《台灣電視新聞性節目多元化之研究—以談話性新聞節目為例》。中國文化大學新聞研究所在職專班碩士論文。
游明儀 (2003)。《新聞談話性節目的內容分析暨其節目中記者專業意理實踐之研究：以新聞駭客News 98為例》。國立臺灣大學新聞研究所碩士論文。
紀佩君 (2004)。《台灣政論節目的考古與拓璞—談十年流變與初探大選期間集體收視升降的文化解釋》。國立政治大學社會研究所碩士論文。
盛治仁 (2005)。〈電視談話性節目研究—來賓、議題結構及閱聽人特質分析〉，《新聞學研究》，第84期，163-203頁。
彭芸 (2001)。《新媒介與政治》。台北：五南。
張卿卿 (2002)。〈競爭媒體使用對選民競選議題知識與政治效能感的影響—以兩千年總統大選為例，《選舉研究》，第9期，1-39頁。
楊意菁 (2004)。〈民意與公共性:批判解讀台灣電視談話節目〉，《新聞學研究》，第79期，1-47頁。
滿昱綸 (2004)。《媒體與政治~以年代電視台汪笨湖主持政論性叩應節目為例》。中山政治學研究所碩士論文。
張卿卿、羅文輝 (2007)。〈追求知識、認同或娛樂？政論性談話節目的內容與閱聽眾收視動機的探討〉，《新聞學研究》，第93期，83-139頁。
陳品皓 (2006)。〈電視政論節目觀眾的媒體使用與政治價值觀：電視政論節目觀眾的媒體使用與政治價值觀以2004年立法委員選舉為例〉。2006年北高兩市選舉國際學術研討會。
李君順 (2003)。《民眾政治參與與新聞性談話節目收視動機、行為關聯性研究--以2002年台北市長選舉為例》 國立政治大學新聞研究