本研究以社交焦慮、社交孤寂、憂鬱作為兒童內化問題行為之指標，利用潛在變項成長曲線模型來探討：（1）不同性別學生的內化問題行為之發展軌跡（2）學生性別、父母個別支持，與學生內化問題行為發展軌跡之關聯。本研究使用「兒童及青少年行為之長期發展研究」之第2001年至2006年的資料，將六年期間研究變項資料完整者納入分析樣本，共計1,030人。
本研究結果支持內化問題行為發展軌跡因孩童性別而有所變化，即女生內化問題行為為顯著上升的發展趨勢，然男生為顯著下降。本研究發現女生內化問題行為起始點較嚴重者，發展上升速度較慢；男生內化問題行為起始點較嚴重者，下降速度較快。然父母支持與學生的內化問題行為之起始點、斜率無關連。
因此建議家長、教師應特別注意女生內化問題行為的發展情形，且對於內化問題行為較為嚴重的兒童，需要足夠的耐心去協助兒童，使孩童能隨著時間回歸至一般群體內化問題行為的常態發展。

The purpose of this paper aims to investigate the following research problems: (1) the trajectories of internalizing problem behavior among the students of different genders, and (2) the relationship of the students’ internalizing trajectories with those students’ genders, and parental support. Internalizing problems behavior was measured by depression, social anxiety and social loneliness. The data used in this paper were derived from 2001 to 2006 data of a longitudinal study entitled “Child and Adolescent Behaviors in Long-term Evolution”. Complete data from 1030 children were analyzed in this paper.
The result supports that internalizing trajectories vary with children’s gender. Girls’ internalizing behavior significantly increases over time, whereas for boys’ decreases. In addition, girls with higher initial scores on internalizing behavior have less increase than those with lower initial scores, and boys with higher initial scores on internalizing behavior have a greater decrease than those with lower initial scores. Finally, the initial level and the rate of change of students’ internalizing behavior don’t depend on parental support for box sexes.
Hence, our study suggests that parents and teachers should pay special notice to the development of girls' internalizing behavior, require sufficient patience to assist the children with relatively serious internalizing behavior, and consequently, children may return to normative development of internalizing behavior in general population over time.

一、中文文獻
王雪貞、林翠湄、連廷嘉、黃俊豪(譯)(2006)。發展心理學。台北：學富文化事業。(Shaffer,D. R.,1999)
李思賢、張弘潔、李蘭、吳文琪(2006)。家庭及學校的社會資本與國小學童內化問題行為之關係。中華心理衛生學刊，19(3),231-254。
利翠珊(2005)。身心障礙兒童家庭中夫妻的壓力、付出與恩情。中華心理衛生學刊，18，25-54。
利翠珊(2006)。華人婚姻韌性的形成與變化：概念釐清與理論建構。本土心理學研究，25，101-137。
江宜珍、吳肖琪、李蘭(2005)。台灣北部國小四年級學童曾經發生自殺意念之相關因素研究。台灣公共衛生雜誌，24(6)，471-482。
邱皓政(2004)。結構方程模式：LISREL 的理論、技術與運用。台北：雙葉書廊有限公司。
陳為堅(2005)。學校憂鬱傾向學生推估及預防策略之研究。教育部訓育委員會專案研究。
黃芳銘(2007)。結構方程模式：理論與應用。台北：五南圖書公司。
梁培勇、張如穎、薛惠琪、李筱容、陳韻如、吳文娟、鄭欣宜、許美雲、劉美蓉(2005)。偏差行為概說。載於梁培勇(主編)，兒童偏差行為(2-16)。台北:心理出版社。
游錦雲、李思賢、李蘭、陳玉佩(2008)。兒童內化問題行為量表之建構及其信效度研究。測驗學刊，投稿中。
二、英文文獻
Achenbach, T. M. , & Edelbrock, C. S. (1978). The classification of child psychopathology: A review and analysis of empirical efforts. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1275-1301.
Amato, P. R. (1994). Father-child relations, mother- child relations, and offspring psychological well- being in early adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 1031-1042.
Amato, P. R. , & Rivera, F. (1999). Paternal involvement and children's behavior problems. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61, 375-384.
Aunola, K. , & Nurmi, J. E. (2005). The Role of Parenting Styles in Children’s Problem Behavior. Child Development, 76, 1144–1159.
Bandura, A. (1978). The self system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344-358.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development. Vol.6. Six theories of child development (pp. 1-60). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Barber, B. K. , Olsen, J. E. , & Shagle, S. C. (1994). Associations between parental psychological and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65, 1120-1136.
Barnes, G. M. (1984). Adolescent alcohol abuse and other problem behaviors: Their relationships and common parental influences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 329-347.
Barnett, R. C. , Kibria, N. , Baruch, G. K. , & Pleck, J. H. (1991). Adult daughter-parent relationships and their association with daughterssubjective well-being and psychological distress. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 29-42.
Baron, P. (1986). Egocentrism and Depressive Symptomatology in Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 1, 431-443.
Barrera, M. Jr. , & Garrison-Jones, C. (1992). Family and peer social support as specific correlates of adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 1-16.
Bartels, M. ,van den Oord, E. J. C. G. , Hudziak, J. J. , Rietveld, M. J. H. ,van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M. , & Boomsma, D. I. (2004). Genetic and environmental mechanisms underlying stability and change in problem behaviors at ages 3, 7, 10, and 12. Developmental Psychology, 40, 852–867.
Baumrind, D. (1989). Pubertal process and the early adolescent transition. In W. Damon (Ed.), Child development today and tomorrow (pp. 349-378). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bean, R. A. , Barber, B. K. , & Crane, D. R. (2006). Parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control among African American youth. Journal of family issues, 27, 13-35.
Bean, R. A. , Bush, K. R. , McKenry, P. C. , & Wilson, S. M. (2003). The impact of parental support, behavioral control, and psychological control on the academic achievement and self-esteem of African American and European American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18, 523-541.
Bell-Dolan, D. , & Wessler, A. E. (1994). Attributional style of anxious children: Extensions from cognitive theory and research on adult anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 8, 79-96.
Bentler, P. M. , & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588-606.
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables. New York: Wiley.
Bongers, I. L. , Koot, H. M. (2003). The Normative Development of Child and Adolescent Problem Behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 179-192.
Brendgen, M. , Wanner, B. , Morin, A. J. , & Vitaro, F. (2005). Relations with parents and with peers, temperament, and trajectories of depressed mood during early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 579–594.
Buchanan, C. , Eccles, J. , & Becker, J. (1992). Are adolescents the victims of raging hormones? Evidence for activational effects of hormones on moods and behavior at adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 62-107.
Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65, 1111-1119.
Cicchetti, D. , & Cohen, D. J. (2006). Developmental psychopathology (7th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Coley, R. L. (2003). Daughter-father relationships and adolescent psychosocial functioning in low-income African American families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 867–875.
Connell, A. M. , & Goodman, S. H. (2002). The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 746-773.
Cookston, J. T. , & Finlay, A. K. (2006). Father involvement and adolescent adjustment: Longitudinal findings from Add Health. Fathering, 4, 137-158.
Culp, R. E. , Schadle, S. , Robinson, L. , & Culp, A. M. (2000). Relationships among paternal involvement and young children's perceived self-competence and behavioral problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies ,9, 27-38.
Dekovic, M. , Buist, K. L. , & Reitz, E. ( 2004). Stability and changes in problem behavior during adolescence: latent growth analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 1-12.
Devine, D. , Kempton, T. , & Forehand, R. (1994). Adolescent Depressed Mood and Young Adult Functioning: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 629-640.
Duncan, T. E. , Duncan, S. C. , Strycker, L. A. (2006). An introduction to latent variable growth curve modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Applications (2th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Duncan, T. E. , Duncan , S. C. , Strycker , L. A. , Okut, H. , & Hix-Small, H. (2006). Recent methodological and statistical advances: a latent variable growth modeling framework. In Liddle, H. A. & Rowe, C. (Eds), Adolescent substance abuse: research and clinical advances (pp.52-77). London: Cambridge University press.
Elgar, F. J. , Mills, R. S. L. , McGrath, P. J. , Waschbusch, D. A. , & Brownridge,D. A. (2007). Maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and child maladjustment: the mediating role of parental behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 943-955.
Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025~1034.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Feinstein, L. , & Bynner, J. (2004). The Importance of Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood for Adulthood Socioeconomic Status, Mental Health, and Problem Behavior. Child Development, 75, 1329– 1339.
Fletcher, A. C., Steinberg, L., & Williams-Wheeler, M. (2004). Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: Revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Development, 75, 781-796.
Forehand, R. , Long, N. , Brody, G. H. , & Fauber, R. (1986). Home Predictors of Young Adolescents' School Behavior and Academic Perfomance. Child Development, 57, 1528-1533.
Forehand, R. , & Jones, D. J. (2002). The stability of parenting: a longitudinal analysis of inner-city African-American Mothers. Journal of child and family studies, 11, 455-467.
Forehand, R. , & Nousiainen, S. (1993). Maternal and paternal parenting: critical dimensions in adolescent functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 213–221.
Galambos, N. L. , Barker, E. T. , & Almeida, D. M. (2003). Parents do matter: trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 578-594.
Gant, R. (2005). The role of value priorities in paternal and maternal involvement in child care. Journal of marriage and family, 67, 643-655.
Greenberger, E. , & Chen, C. (1996). Perceived family relationships and depressed mood in early and late adolescence: A comparison of European and Asian American. Developmental Psychology, 32, 707-716.
Hoffman, M. A. , Ushpiz, V. , & Levy-Shift, R. (1988). Social support and self-esteem in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 4, 307-316.
Holahan, C. J. ,Valentiner, D. P. , & Moos, R. H. (1995). Parental support, coping strategies, and psychological adjustment: An integrative model with late adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 633-648.
Holsen, I. , Kraft, P. , &Vittersø, J. (2000). Stability in depressed mood in adolescence: results from a 6-year longitudinal panel study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 61-79.
Hu, L. , & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling,6,1-55.
Inhelder, B. , Piaget, J. (1958). The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. New York: Basic Books.
Lamb, M. E. (2004). The role of the father in child development (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Lee, T. S. H. ,Yen, L. L. , & Chen, L. T. (2004). The association of child problem behaviors, inter-parental conflict and maternal psychological distress. Journal of Medical Sciences, 24, 185-190.
Leve, L. D. ,Kim, H. K. , & Pears, K. C. (2005). Childhood Temperament and Family Environment as Predictors of Internalizing and Externalizing Trajectories From Ages 5 to 17. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 505–520.
Loeber, R. , Drinkwater, M. , Yin, Y. , Anderson, S. J. , Schmidt, L. C. , & Crawford, A. (2000). Stability of family interaction from ages 6 to 18. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 353–369.
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2th ed.). New York: Guilford.
Marsiglio, W. , Amato, P. , Day, R. D. , & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s and beyond. Journal of marriage and the family, 62, 1173–1191.
McNally, S. , Eisenberg, N. , & Harris, J. D. (1991). Consistency and change in maternal child-rearing practices and values: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 62, 190–198.
Meadows, S. O. , Brown, J. S. , & Elder, G. H. (2006). Depressive symptoms, stress, and support: gendered trajectories from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 89-99.
Mueller, R. O. (1996). Basic principles of structural equation modeling: An introduction to LISREL and EQS. New York: Springer.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2004). Mplus User’s Guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Needham, B. L. (2007). Reciprocal relationships between symptoms of depression and parental support during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence.
Nelson, D. A. , Hart , C. H. , Yang, C. , Olsen, J. A. , & Jin, S. (2006). Aversive Parenting in China: Associations With Child Physical and Relational Aggression. Child Development, 77, 554–572.
Petersen, A. C. , Compas, B. E. , Brooks-Gunn, J. , Stemmler, M. , Ey , S. , & Grant, K. E. ( 1993 ). Depression in adolescence. American Psychologist, 48, 155-168.
SAS Institute Inc. (1988). SAS/ETS user’s guide. Cary, NC: Author.
Santrock, J. W. (1999). Life-span development (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Schmitz, S. , Fulker, D. W. , & Mrazek, D. A. (1995). Problem behavior in early and middle childhood: An initial behavior genetic analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 36, 1443-1458.
Schwarz, J. C. , Barton-Henry, M. L. , & Pruzinsky, T. (1985). Assessing child-rearing behaviors: A com-parison of rating made by mother, father, child, and sibling on the CRPBI. Child Development, 56, 462- 479.
Smith, L. (2006). Norms in human development: introduction .In L. Smith , & J. Vonèche (Eds.), Norms in human development (pp. 57-75). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Steinberg, L. , & Morris, A. S. (2001). ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 52, 83-110.
Stolz, H. E. , & Barber, B. K. (2005). Toward disentangling fathering and mothering: an assessment of relative importance. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 1076–1092.
Strohschein, L. (2005). Household income histories and child mental health trajectories. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46, 359-375.
Stout, R. L.(2008). Regression to the mean in additive reaserch. Additction, 103, 53-53.
Wenk, D. , Hardesty, C. L. , Morgan, C. S. , & Blair, S. L. (1994). The influence of parental involvement on the well-being of sons and daughters.Journal of marriage and the family, 56, 229-234.
Wilkinson, R. B. (2004). The role of parental and peer attachment in the psychological health and self esteem of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 491–505.
Willett, J. B. , Singer, J. D. , & Martin, N. C. (1998). The design and analysis
of longitudinal studies of development and psychopathology in context: Statistical models and methodological recommendations. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 395-426.
Van der Valk, J. C. , Verhulst, F. C. , Neale, M. C. , & Boomsma, D. I. (1998). Longitudinal genetic analysis of problem behavior in biologically related and unrelated adoptees. Behavior Genetics, 28, 365–380.
Vazsonyi, A. T. , & Belliston, L. M. (2006). The cultural and developmental significance of parenting processes in adolescent anxiety and depression symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 491–505.
Yen, L.-L., Chen, L., Lee, S.-H., Hsiao, C., & Pan, L.-Y. (2002). Child and adolescent behaviour in long-term evolution (CABLE): A school-based health lifestyle study.
Promotion & Education, supple 1, 33-40.
Zhang, X. Y., & Tomblin, J. B. (2003). Explaining and controlling regression to the mean in longitudinal research designs. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing research, 46, 1340-1351.