Author: |
林彥佑 Lin, Yan-You |
---|---|
Thesis Title: |
擺盪於民主與威權之間:混合政體之研究 Waving between democratic regimes and authoritarian regimes:The research on hybrid regimes |
Advisor: |
陳文政
Chen, Wen-Cheng |
Degree: |
碩士 Master |
Department: |
政治學研究所 Graduate Institute of Political Science |
Thesis Publication Year: | 2018 |
Academic Year: | 106 |
Language: | 中文 |
Number of pages: | 168 |
Keywords (in Chinese): | 混合政體 、自由主義式民主 、威權政體 |
Keywords (in English): | hybrid regime, liberal democracy, authoritarian regime |
DOI URL: | http://doi.org/10.6345/THE.NTNU.GPS.007.2018.F09 |
Thesis Type: | Academic thesis/ dissertation |
Reference times: | Clicks: 169 Downloads: 33 |
Share: |
School Collection Retrieve National Library Collection Retrieve Error Report |
隨著冷戰結束,自由主義式民主自此高舉勝利的旗幟,成為世界上主流的政治體制。然而,結合民主與威權特徵的混合政體也伴隨著這波潮流應運而生並逐漸茁壯,且發展至今,甚至有一舉超越民主政體的趨勢。
針對上述的現象,本文嘗試使用自由之家、POLITY IV與DPI等資料庫的數據形成混合政體的操作性定義,以觀察混合政體在1991年至2015年期間,於全球層次及歐洲地區、美洲地區、亞太地區、中東及北非地區、撒哈拉以南非洲地區、歐亞大陸地區等區域的現況分布與變化趨勢,並應證混合政體於冷戰結束後便大量出現的論述。
而由於此些為數眾多的混合政體,分別為民主政體跟威權政體所轉向,或是在冷戰前即為混合政體的國家,故本文將其分為「長期維持混合政體」、「由民主轉為混合政體」與「由威權轉為混合政體」三條路徑,並探究形成該路徑的成因。對此,可以發現除了冷戰結束後生成適合混合政體的國際環境外,伴隨著近十年的民主衰退與威權復甦的現象,加上許多統治者看上民主的工具性價值,皆提供適合混合政體滋長的良好條件。
面對逐漸進逼的混合政體,如何摘除其用以偽裝威權本質的假面具將是當務之急。因此,除了加強民主的治理能使其恢復吸引力外,吾人也應當認知到民主並非僅有自由主義式民主一種形式。惟若能以非西方式民主來含蓋政治文化各異的國家,將能增加民主的彈性與適應性,而避免受到混合政體的挑戰。
Since the end of the Cold War, liberal democracy has become the most famous political regime in the world. At the same time, however, hybrid regimes that mix autocratic and democratic features have proliferated. To date, it seems to have a tendency that democratic regimes are outnumbered by the hybrid regimes.
With a view to above phenomenon, this research firstly tries to use data bases of Freedom House, Polity IV and DPI to induct an operational definition of hybrid regime. By observing the distribution and variation of hybrid regimes in Europe, the Americas, Asia-Pacific, Middle East and North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa and Eurasia and even at a global level from 1991 to 2015, it justifies the arguments that the number of hybrid regimes has increased since the Cold War.
Since these numerous hybrid regimes are from democratic and authoritarian regimes, or they have become hybrid regimes before the Cold War, this research is divided into three paths and investigates the causes of forming these paths. These three paths are “maintaining at hybrid regimes in long-term”, “from democratic to hybrid regime” and “from authoritarian to hybrid regime”. In this regard, this research finds that the international environment which is suited for hybrid regimes after the Cold War, in the meanwhile democratic recession and authoritarian resurgence has continued over the last decade, and many rulers manipulate instrumental values of democracy as well. They all provide a good condition for hybrid regimes to be nurtured.
Facing up to the growing number of hybrid regimes, how to uncover its mask to pretend their authoritarian essences is the urgent task. As a result, in addition to strengthening democracy governance capacity to recover its attractiveness, we should recognize the fact that democratic regime is not just one type of liberal democracy. If non-western democracy could be contained within different countries of various political cultures, it would increase democracy’s flexibility and adaptability and prevent democratic regimes from challenging by hybrid regimes.
一、中文文獻
大衛.馬許、格里斯‧托克(David Marsh,Gerry Stocker),陳義彥、陳景堯、林妤虹、何景榮、任雲楠譯(2009),《政治學方法論與途徑》,台北:韋伯。
厄爾.貝比 ( Earl Babbie)著,林秀雲譯(2013),《社會科學研究方法》, 台北:雙葉。
朱浤源 (2004),《撰寫博碩士論文實戰守則》,台北:正中。
石忠山 (2014),〈飄搖民主路 當代烏克蘭憲政體制的發展與挑戰〉,載於施正鋒(主編),《動亂中的烏克蘭》,台北市:翰蘆圖書。
江宜樺 (2001),《自由民主的理路》,台北:聯經。
任得厚 (1993),《政治學》,台北:三民。
向駿 (2010),〈從宏都拉斯政變看拉美民主發展〉,《全球政治評論》,29,29 -54。
向駿 (2012),〈查維茲連任 國際影響深遠〉,《拉丁美洲經貿季刊》,11,29-32。
李冠和 (2012),《選舉式威權與選舉競爭性:選舉穩固或是削弱了威權政體》,(未出版碩士論文),國立台灣大學,台北。
李冠和 (2013),〈選舉式威權政體:選舉競爭度、穩定性與民主化〉,《政治科學論叢》,57,69-114。
李憲榮 (2013),〈新加坡國會選舉制度〉,載於施正鋒(主編),《當代新加坡民主政治》,台北市:翰蘆圖書。
吳玉山 (2007),〈顏色革命的許諾與侷限〉,《臺灣民主季刊》,4(2),67-112。
沈旭暉 (2015),《解構中國夢:中國民族主義與中美關係的互動》,香港:香港中文大學。
明居正 (2007),〈橙色革命在烏克蘭〉,《臺灣民主季刊》,4(1),205-212。
林佾靜(2014),〈探索失敗國家問題研究分析架構:以奈及利亞為例〉,《全球政治評論》,46,81-114。
吳彥然 (2009),《競爭性威權體制政權更替之研究-以喬治亞玫瑰革命(2003)為例》,(未出版碩士論文),東海大學,台中。
彼得伯.翰姆 (Austin Ranney)著,何景榮譯(2008),《政治科學研究方法》, 台北:韋伯文化。
姜俊廷 (2009),《俄羅斯政治文化與普丁的威權統治》,(未出版碩士論文),國立政治大學,台北。
施奕任 (2011),〈新加坡全球城市國家建構及其國家控制的政治官僚模式〉,《政治科學論叢》,43,63-108。
施奕任 (2017),〈不自由的民主政治:人民行動黨的優勢地位與新加坡政治發展〉,載於孫采薇、吳玉山(主編),《優勢政黨與民主:亞洲經驗的省思》,高雄市:巨流。
威廉·道布森 (William Dobson)著,謝惟敏譯 (2014),《獨裁者的進化—收編、分化、假民主》(The Dictator's Learning Curve: Inside the Global Battle for Democracy)。新北市:左岸文化。
郭秋慶 (2014),〈歐洲聯盟對烏克蘭的政策〉,載於施正鋒(主編),《動亂中的烏克蘭》,台北市:翰蘆圖書。
張弘 (2013),〈烏克蘭政治變遷初探〉,《俄羅斯東歐中亞研究》,5,9-16。
張芳華 (2015),〈制度因素與非制度因素對民主崩潰的影響:46個半總統制國家的經驗研究〉,《政治科學論叢》,66,111-146。
許菁芸 (2013),〈俄羅斯半總統制下普丁歸位與民主發展之探討〉,《台灣民主季刊》,10(4),49-92。
袁正綱 (2015),《研究方法》,台中:滄海。
紐文英 (2015),《研究方法與論文寫作》,台北:雙葉。
陳文政(2006),〈憲政主義結構內涵之體系分析〉,《師大政治論叢》,6期,47-162。
陳佩修 (2009),〈泰國的軍事政變與政治變遷〉,《東吳政治學報》,27(3),65-116。
陳偉華 (2014),〈伊斯蘭、民主與軍人政治—以巴基斯坦為例〉,《台灣民主季刊》,11(4),111-160。
陳義彥 (2014),《政治學》,台北:五南。
陳鴻瑜(2011),《新加坡史》,台北市:五南圖書。
葉乃嘉 (2006),《研究方法的第一本書》,台北:五南。
葉至誠、葉立誠 (2011),《研究方法與研究論文》,台北:商鼎。
楊蓁婷 (2012),《新加坡威權政體之研究》,(未出版碩士論文),國立中山大學,高雄。
趙竹成 (2011),〈二零零八年後梅-普架構下俄羅斯半總統制的檢視〉,《政治科學論叢》,(47),143-174。
奧斯丁.蘭尼(Austin Ranney)著,林劍秋譯(1993),《政治科學導論》,台北:桂冠圖書出版。
劉勝驥 (2011),《方法論—研究之建設》,台北:巨流。
羅伯特.道爾(Robert Dahl),林猛譯(1999),《論民主》,台北:聯經出版。
薩孟武(1978),《政治學》,台北:三民。
顧長永 (2006),《新加坡—蛻變的四十年》,台北市:五南圖書。
二、英文文獻
Almond, Gabriel A. and Sidney Verba (1971), The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
Ambrosio, Thomas (2009), Authoritarian Backlash: Russian Resistance to Democratization in the Former Soviet Union, (Burlington:Ashgate).
Arriola, Leonardo R. and Terrence Lyons (2016), Ethiopia’s 100% Election, Journal of Democracy, 27(1),76-88.
Ajayi, Kunle (2006), Security Forces, Electoral Conduct and the 2003:General Elections in Nigeria, The Social Science Journal, 13(1), 57-65.
Barbé, Esther and Elisabeth Johansson-Nogués (2008), The EU as a Modest Force for Good:The European Neighbourhood Policy, International Affairs, 84(1), 81-96.
Beck, Thorsten, George Clarke, Alberto Groff, Philip Keefer and Patrick Walsh(2001), New Tools in Comparative Political Economy: The Database of Political Institutions, The World Bank Economic Review, 15(1), 165–176.
Bermeo, Nancy (2016), On Democratic Backsliding, Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 5-19.
Birch, Sarah (2002), The presidential election in Ukraine, October 1999, Electoral Studies, 21, 339–345.
Bogfanor, Vernon(1987), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Institutions (New York:Basil Blackwell Inc).
Brady, Anne-Marie (2015), China’s Foreign Propaganda Machine, Journal of Democracy, 26(4), 51-59.
Bratton, Michael and Nicholas van de Walle (1997), Democratic Experiments in Africa:Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective, (New York:Cambridge University Press).
Bratton, Michael (2008), Vote Buying And Violence In Nigerian Election Campaigns, Afrobarometer Working Papers, 99, 1-16.
Brownlee, Jason (2009), Portents of Pluralism: How Hybrid Regimes Affect Democratic Transitions, American Journal of Political Science, 53(3), 515-532.
Brownlee, Jason (2011), Executive Elections in the Arab World: When and How Do They Matter? Comparative Political Studies, 44(7), 807-828.
Cameron, David R. and Mitchell A. Orenstein (2012), Post-Soviet Authoritarianism:The Influence of Russia in its ‘Near Abroad’, Post-Soviet Affairs, 28(1), 2-38.
Carothers, Thomas (1999), Aiding Democracy Abroad,(Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace).
Carothers, Thomas(2002), The End of the Transition Paradigm, Journal of Democracy,13(1), 5-21.
Chang, Eric and Chu Yun-han (2006), Corruption and Trust: Exceptionalism in Asian Democracies? The Journal of Politics, 68(2), 259-271.
Cooley, Alexander (2015), countering democritic norms, Journal of Democracy, 26(3),49-63.
Crawford, Gordon (2001), Foreign Aid and Political Reform: A Comparative AnalysisDemocracy Assistance and Political Conditionality, (New York:Palgrave).
Diamond Larry, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (1988), Democracy in developing countries, (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner).
Diamond, Larry (1995), Promoting Democracy in the 1990s:Actors and Instruments, Issues and Imperatives, (New York:Carnegie Corporation of New York).
Diamond, Larry(1999), Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation (Baltimore:The John Hopkins University Press).
Diamond, Larry(2002), Thinking About Hybrid Regimes, Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 21-35.
Diamond, Larry (2015), Facing Up to the Democratic Recession, Journal of Democracy, 26(1), 141-155.
Diamond, Larry (2016),In Search of Democracy, (London and New York:Routledge).
Donno, Daniela (2013), Elections and Democratization in Authoritarian Regimes, American Journal of Political Science, (57)3, 703-716.
Dulani, Boniface (2016), Political Transition and Inclusive Development in Malawi, (London and New York:Routledge).
Ekman, Joakim (2009), Political Participation and Regime Stability: A Framework for Analyzing Hybrid Regimes, International Political Science Review, (30)1, 7-31.
Edet, Lawrence Ime (2016), Election Administration and Democratization Process in Nigeria: An Appraisal of 2007-2015, ACTA UNIVERSITATIS DANUBIUS, 8(2), 66-76.
Fetzer, Joel S. (2008), Election Strategy and Ethnic Politics in Singapore, Taiwan Journal of Democracy, 4(1), 135-53.
Fukuyama, Francis (1992), The End of History and the Last Man, (New York: Free Press).
Fukuyama, Francis (2005), Stateness First, Journal of Democracy, 16(1), 84-88.
Gberevbie, D. ESEME (2009), Democracy and the future of the Nigerian State, Journal of Social Development In Africa, 24(1), 165-187.
Gibson, Clark C. and James D. Long (2009), The presidential and parliamentary elections in Kenya, December 2007, Electoral Studies, 28(3), 497-502.
Győri, Lóránt, Péter Krekó, Jakub Janda and Bernhard Weidinger (2017), Does Russia interfere in Czech, Austrian and Hungarian elections? DÖW, Political Capital & European Values. Retrieved from http://www.politicalcapital.hu/pcadmin/source/documents/western_experiences_eastern_vulnerabilities_20171012.pdf
Hale, Henry E. (2011), The Myth of Mass Russian Support for Autocracy: The Public Opinion Foundations of a Hybrid Regime, Europe-Asia Studies, 63,1357–75.
Haran, Olexiy (2011), From Viktor to Viktor: Democracy and Authoritarianism in Ukraine, Demokratizatsiya, 19(2), 93-110.
Hedenskog, Jakob and Robert L. Larsson (2007), Russian Leverage on the CIS and the Baltic States, (Stockholm: Swedish Defense Research Agency).
Högström, John (2013), Classification and Rating of Democracy -A Comparison,Taiwan Journal of Democracy, 9(2), 38-50.
Howard, Marc, and Philip Roessler (2006), Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes, American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 366-368.
Howard, Marc, and Philip Roessler (2009), Post-Cold War Political Regimes: When Do Election Matter? In Staffan Lindberg(Eds), Democratization by Elections: A New Model of Transition, (Baltimore:John Hopkins University Press)pp.101-127.
Huntington, Samuel P. (1991), The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, (Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press).
Jaquish, Douglas (2011), The Social Schisms of Nigeria, In Christopher J. Kinnan(Eds), Failed State 2030, (Alabama:Center for Strategy and Technology)pp.21-32
Jones, Matthew (2000), Creating Malaysia: Singapore security, the Borneo territories, and the contours of British policy, 1961–63, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 28(2), 85-109.
Keck, Margaret E. and Kathryn Sikkink (1998), Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics, (New York:Cornell University Press).
Knack, Stephen (2004), Does Foreign Aid Promote Democracy? International Studies Quarterly, 48(1), 251-266.
Koh, Gillian, Ooi Giok Ling (2004), Relationship between state and civil society in Singapore:Clarifying the concepts, assessing the ground, In Lee Hock Guan(Eds), Civil Society in Southeast Asia, (Singapore:Institute of Southeast Asian Studies).pp.167-97
Kuhner, Timothy K.(2016), The Corruption of Liberal and Social Democracies, FORDHAM Law Review, 84, 2453-2476.
Kuzio, Taras (2001), Introduction: Overcoming Legacies of The Past. Observation on Ukraine First Decade of Independence. Journal of Ukraine Studies, 26, 1-12.
Latinobarómetro Corporation (2006), Latinobarómetro Report 2006. Retrieved from: https://apps.carleton.edu/campus/library/assets/LATBD_Latinobarometro_Report_2006.pdf
Levitsky, Steven, and Lucan Way(2002), The Rise of Competitive
Authoritarianism,Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 51-65.
Levitsky, Steven and Lucan A. Way (2010), Competitive Authoritarianism:Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War, (New York:Cambridge University Press).
Lindberg, Staffan (2004), The Power of Elections: Democratic Participation, Competition, and Legitimacy in Africa, (Lund: Lund Political Studies).
Linz, Juan J.(2000), Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers).
Linz, Juan J. and Alfred Stepan (2001), Toward Consolidated Democracies, In Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner(Eds), The Global Divergence of Democracies, (Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press).
Lust-Okar, Ellen (2009a), Competitive Clientelism in the Middle East, Journal of Democracy, 20(3), 122-135.
Lust-Okar, Ellen (2009b), Legislative Elections in Hegemonic Authoritarian Regimes:Competitive Clientelism and Resistance to Democratization, In Staffan I. Lindberg(Eds), Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition, (Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press)pp.226-245
Macey, Jonathan R. (2013), Crony Capitalism: Right Here, Right Now, Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy, 35(1), 5-6.
Macridis, Roy C. (1986), Modern Political Regimes: Patterns and Institutions, (Boston: Little Brown).
Magaloni, Beatriz (2006), Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Mainwaring, Scott and Aníbal Pérez-Li~nán (2013), Lessons from Latin America: Democratic Breakdown and Survival, Journal of Democracy, 34(2),123-137.
Mainwaring, Scott and Aníbal Pérez-Liñán (2015), Cross-Currents in Latin America, Journal of Democracy, 26(1),114-127.
Marshall, Monty G., Keith Jaggers, and Ted Robert Gurr (2016), Polity IV Project: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions,1800–2015: Dataset Users’ Manual (Vienna, VA: Center for Systemic Peace).
Masoud, Tarek (2015), Has the Door Closed on Arab Democracy? Journal of Democracy,26(1), 74-87.
Matsuzato, Kimitaka (2011), Disintegrated Semi-Presidentialism and Parliamentary Oligarchy in Post-Orange Ukraine, In: Robert Elgie, Sophia Moestrup, Yu-Shan Wu. (Eds), Semi-Presidentialism and Democracy, (London: Palgrave Macmillan).
Mauzy, Diane K. and R. S. Milne (2002), Singapore Politics under the People's Action Party, (London:Routledge).
Merkel, Wolfgang (2004), Embedded and Defective Democracies, Democratization, 11(5), 33-58.
MØller, JØrgen and Svend-Erik Skaaning (2013), The Third Wave: Inside the Numbers, Journal of Democracy, 24(4), 97-109.
Morse, Yonatan L. (2012), The Era of Electoral Authoritarianism, World Politics, 64(1),161-198.
Mungiu-Pippidi, Alina (2013), Controlling Corruption Through Collective Action, Journal of Democracy, 24(1), 101-115.
Nafziger, E. Wayne (1972), The Economic Impact of the Nigerian Civil War, The Journal of Modern African Study, 10(2), 223-245.
Nathan, Andrew (2012), Confucius and the Ballot Box: Why ‘Asian Values’ Do Not Stymie Democracy, Foreign Affairs, 91(4), 134-139.
Nathan, Andrew J. (2016), China’s Challenge, In Larry Diamond, Marc F.
Plattner,Christopher Walker(Eds), Authoritarianism Goes Global: The Challenge to Democracy, (Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press).pp.23-39
National Endowment for Democracy (2006), The Backlash against Democracy Assistance,Retrieved from https://www.ned.org/docs/backlash06.pdf
Neudert, Lisa-Maria N. (2017), Computational Propaganda in Germany: A Cautionary Tale. Computational Propaganda Research Project, Working Paper, NO.2017.7, 3-30.
Nodia, Ghia (2014), External Influence and Democratization:The Revenge of Geopolitics, Journal of Democracy, 25(4), 139-150.
Nye, Joseph S. (1990), Soft Power. Foreign Policy, 80(Autumn), 153-171.
Obasanjo, Olusegun (1980), My command: An account of the Nigerian civil war, 1967-1970, (Ibadan: Heinemann Books).
O’Donnell, Guillermo(1999), Counterpoints: Selected Essays on
Authoritarianism and Democratization (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press).
O’Donnell, Guillermo(2003), Horizontal Accountability:The Legal Institutionalization of Mistrust. In Scott Mainwaring and C hristopher Welna (Eds.), Democratic Accountability in Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press).
Ogbeidi, Michael M. (2012), Political Leadership and Corruption in Nigeria Since 1960: A Socio-economic Analysis, Journal of Nigeria Studies, 1(2), 1-22.
Okeke, Remi Chukwudi (2015), DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN NIGERIA: PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 5(5), 21-31.
Olcott, Martha Brill, and Marina Ottaway(1999), Challenge of Semi-Authoritarianism.Carnegie paper No.7. (Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace).
Omotola, J. Shola (2013), Trapped in Transition? Nigeria’s First Democratic Decade and Beyond, Taiwan Journal of Democracy, 9(2), 171-200.
Omotoso, Tunji and Soji Oyeranmi (2014), the june 12 struggle as a phenomenon In Nigerian political history, Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 5(2), 3-5.
Öniş, Ziya (2017), The Age of Anxiety: The Crisis of Liberal Democracy in a Post-Hegemonic Global Order, THE INTERNATIONAL SPECTATOR, 52(3), 1-16.
Open Neighbourhood project.(2017)ANNUAL SURVEY REPORT, EaP Regional Overview – 2nd Wave. Retrieved from
https://www.euneighbours.eu/en
Ottaway, Marina(2007), Is Democracy the Answer? In Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall, Leashing the Dogs of War: Conflict Management in a Divided World, (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace).
Pattanaik, Smruti S. (2004), Pakistan’s Sustainable Democracy: Army as the Political Architect, Strategic Analysis, 28(2), 272-289.
Pomerantsev, Peter (2016), The Kremlin’s Information War, In Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Christopher Walker(Eds), Authoritarianism Goes Global: The Challenge to Democracy, (Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press).pp.174-186
Puddington, Arch and Tyler Roylance (2016), The Freedom House Survey for 2015: Anxious Dictators, Wavering Democrats, Journal of Democracy, 27(2), 86-100.
Quah, Jon S. T. (2001), Singapore: Meritocratic City State, In Jong Funstion (Eds), Government and Politics in Southeast Asia, (Singapore:Institute of Southeast Asian Studies).pp.291-327
Schedler, Andreas (2001), What Is Democratic Consolidation. In Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (Eds.), The Global Divergence of Democracies, (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press). pp.149-166
Schedler, Andreas (2002), The Menu of Manipulation, Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 36-50.
Schedler, Andreas (2006), The Logic of Electoral Authoritarianism. In Andreas Schedler(Eds.), Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers). pp.1-11.
Schedler, Andreas (2009), The Contingent Power of Authoritarian Elections. In Staffan I.Lindberg(Eds), Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press).pp.291-313
Schmitter, Philippe C. and Terry Lynn Karl (1991), What Democracy Is and Is Not, Journal of Democracy, 2(3), 75-88.
Schumpeter, Joseph A.(1976), Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (London: Allen&Unwin).
Sedelius, Thomas and Sten Berglund (2012), Towards Presidential Rule in Ukraine: Hybrid Regime Dynamics Under Semi-Presidentialism, Baltic Journal of Law & Politics, 5(1), 22-41.
Shambaugh, David (2015), China’s Soft-Power Push, Foreign Affairs, July/August,99-108.
Shin, Doh Chull and Hannah June Kim (2016), Liberal Democracy as the End of History:Western Theories versus Eastern Asian Realities, Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 5(1), 133-153.
Shugart, Matthew S. and John M. Carey (1992), Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional
Design and Electoral Dynamics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Shulman, Stephen (2004), The Contours of Civic and Ethnic National Identification in Ukraine, Europe-Asia Studies, 56(1), 35-56.
Shveda, Yuriy and Joung Ho Park (2016), Ukraine’s revolution of dignity:The dynamics of Euromaidan, Journal of Eurasian Studies, 7, 85-91.
Sorensen, Georg(2008), Democracy and Democratization—Processes and Prospects in a Changing World, (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press).
Trocki, Carl A. (2006), Singapore: Wealth, Power and the Culture of Control, (London:Routledge).
Tushnet, Mark (2015), Authoritarian Constitutionalism, Cornell Law Review, 100(2), 391-461.
Vasil, Raj (2000), Governing Singapore:Democracy and national development, (Singapore:Allen & Unwin).
Walker, Christopher and Jessica Ludwig (2017), From ‘Soft Power’ to Sharp Power:Rising Authoritarian Influence in the Democratic World, National Endowment for Democracy. Retrieved from https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Sharp-Power-Rising-Authoritarian-Influence-Full-Report.pdf
Way, Lucan and Adam Casey (2018), Russian Foreign Election Interventions Since 1991, PONARS Eurasia, No. 520, 1-6.
Wibowo, Ignatius (2009), Chinas Soft Power and Neoliberal Agenda in Southeast Asia, In Li Mingjiang, Soft Power: China's Emerging Strategy in International Politics, (Maryland:Lexington Books).pp.207-226
Wood, Alan T. (2004), Asian Democracy in World History, (New York:Routledge).
Youngs, Richard (2015),Exploring “Non-Western Democracy”, Journal of Democracy, 26(4), 140-154.
Zakaria, Fareed(1997), The Rise of Illiberal Democracy, Foreign Affairs, 76(6), 22-23.
三、網路資料
Akor, Ambrose, Nigeria's Key Opposition Party Approves Merger Plan, Bloomberg, 2013/4/19. 參考網址:https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-04-18/nigeria-s-key-opposition-party-approves-merger-plan 瀏覽時間:2018/5/4
Barnes, Robert, Supreme Court strikes down limits on federal campaign donations, TheWashington Post, 2014/4/2. 參考網址:https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/supreme-court-strikes-down-limits-on-federal-campaign-donations/2014/04/02/54e16c30-ba74-11e3-9a05-c739f29ccb08_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.5d5b1ac074b7 瀏覽時間:2018/5/13
Barry, Ellen, Former Ukraine Premier Is Jailed for 7 Years, The New York Times, 2011/11/11.參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/12/world/europe/yulia-tymoshenko-sentenced-to-seven-years-in-prison.html 瀏覽時間:2018/4/21
Brady, Anne-Marie, Magic Weapons: China’s Political Influence Activities Under Xi Jinping, Wilson Center, 2017/9/18. 參考網址:https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/magic-weapons-chinas-political-influence-activities-under-xi-jinping 瀏覽時間:2018/5/31
Blasts cut Georgia gas, electricity supplies, CNN, 2006/1/22. 參考網址:dition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/01/22/russia.gas/ 瀏覽時間:2018/5/27
Bradsher, Keith, In Downturn, China Sees Path to Growth, The New York Times, 2009/3/16.
參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/17/business/worldbusiness/17compete.html 瀏覽時間:2018/5/17
Buckley, Chris, After Criticism, Publisher Reverses Decision to Bow to China’s Censors,The New York Times, 2017/8/21. 參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/21/world/asia/china-quarterly-cambridge-university-press-censorship-publisher-reverses-decision-to-bow-to-chinas-censors.html_ga=2.17560511.725536331.1527853820-1588300632.1467614815瀏覽時間:2018/6/1
Buckley, Neil and Roman Olearchyk, Ukraine: A nation on guard, Financial Times,2010/11/21. 參考網址:https://www.ft.com/content/43cdd390-dc8b-11df-a0b9-00144feabdc0 瀏覽時間:2018/4/26
Dyer, Geoffand, Jamil Anderlini and Henny Sender, China’s lending hits new heights, Financial Times, 2011/1/18. 參考網址:https://www.ft.com/content/488c60f4-2281-11e0-b6a2-00144feab49a 瀏覽時間:2018/5/17
Erlanger, Steven, UKRAINIANS ELECT A NEW PRESIDENT, The New York Times,1994/7/12. 參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/12/world/ukrainians-elect-a-new-president.html 瀏覽時間:2018/4/12
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 1999:Nigeria 參考網址:
https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/1999/nigeria 瀏覽時間:2018/5/03
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2016:Nigeria 參考網址:
https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/nigeria 瀏覽時間:2018/5/4
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2014:Ukraine 參考網址:
https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2014/ukraine 瀏覽時間:2018/4/21
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2016:Ukraine 參考網址:
https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/ukraine 瀏覽時間:2018/4/22
Fisher, Max, Russia and the U.S. Election: What We Know and Don’t Know, New York Times, 016/12/13. 參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/12/world/europe/russia-trump-election-cia-fbi.html?_ga=2.29150844.134807644.1528032719-2041400068.1508492166 瀏覽時間:2018/6/3
Garcia, Feliks, Linda McMahon: Senate confirms former WWE executive for Small Business dministration post, independent, 2017/2/14. 參考網址:https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/linda-mcmahon-confirmation-donald-trump-cabinet-wwe-ceo-small-business-administration-a7580226.html 瀏覽時間:2018/5/13
Hernández, Javier C.,Leading Western Publisher Bows to Chinese Censorship, The New York Times, 2017/11/1. 參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/01/world/asia/china-springer-nature-censorship.html?_ga=2.209386004.725536331.1527853820-1588300632.1467614815 瀏覽時間:2018/6/1
Horowitz, Jason and Liz Alderman, Chastised by E.U., a Resentful Greece Embraces China’s Cash and Interests, New York Times, 2017/8/26. 參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/26/world/europe/greece-china-piraeus-alexis-tsipras.html?mcubz=1 瀏覽時間:2018/5/30
Human Rights Watch (1996) NIGERIA "PERMANENT TRANSITION" —Current Violations of Human Rights in Nigeria. 參考網址:https://www.hrw.org/reports/1996/Nigeria.htm 瀏覽時間:2018/5/3
International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook(GDP) 參考網址:http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/datasets/WEO瀏覽時間:2018/4/26
Karnitschnig, Matthew, Beijing’s Balkan Backdoor, Politico, 2017/7/13. 參考網址:https://www.politico.eu/article/china-serbia-montenegro-europe-investment-trade-beijing-balkan-backdoor/amp/ 瀏覽時間:2018/5/30
Kimenyi, Mwangi S., Nigeria 2015 presidential election: Significance and challenges
ahead,Brookings Institution, 2015/3/31.參考網址:https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2015/03/31/nigeria-2015-presidential-election-significance-and-challenges-ahead/ 瀏覽時間:2018/5/4
Latinobarómetro Corporation, Latinobarómetro Report 2006. 參考網址https://apps.carleton.edu/campus/library/assets/LATBD_Latinobarometro_Report_2006.pdf
Marat, Erica, Russian Influence Intensifies in Kyrgyzstan After Elections, Eurasia Daily Monitor, 2010/11/21. 參考網址:https://jamestown.org/program/russian-influence-intensifies-in-kyrgyzstan-after-elections/ 瀏覽時間:2018/5/27
Mearsheimer, John J., Getting Ukraine Wrong, The New York Times, 2014/3/13.
參考網址:https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/14/opinion/getting-ukraine-wrong.html 瀏覽時間:2018/4/26
Orttung, Robert, Elizabeth Nelson and Anthony Livshen, How Russia Today is using YouTube, The Washington Post, 2015/3/23. 參考網址:https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkeycage/wp/2015/03/23/how-russia-today-is-using-youtube/?utm_term=.f8b2eec464d8 瀏覽時間:2018/6/1
Pro-Moscow Yanukovych to win Ukraine election, BBC News, 2010/2/8. 參考網址:http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8503177.stm 瀏覽時間:2018/4/20
Scott, Eugene, Evan Perez and Pamela Brown, DOJ: Hiring Kushner does not violate anti-nepotism law, CNN, 2017/1/21. 參考網址:https://edition.cnn.com/2017/01/21/politics/jared-kushner-white-house-job-justice-department-ruling/index.html 瀏覽時間:2018/5/13
The Economist, How to steal an election, 2008/11/13. 參考網址:
http://www.economist.com/node/12607338. 瀏覽時間:2018/2/3
The Economist, China’s one-party system has a surprising number of parties, 2017/3/9.
參考網址:https://www.economist.com/china/2017/03/09/chinas-one-party-system-has-a-surprising-number-of-parties 瀏覽時間:2017/6/30
The Economist, What to do about China’s sharp power, 2017/12/14. 參考網址:https://www.economist.com/leaders/2017/12/14/what-to-do-about-chinas-sharp-power 瀏覽時間:2018/5/30
The Fund for Peace, Fragile States Index 2015 參考網址:
http://library.fundforpeace.org/library/fragilestatesindex-2015.pdf 瀏覽時間:2018/1/11
Transparency International, Corruption Perception Index(1995-2017)參考網址:https://www.transparency.org/research/cpi 瀏覽時間:2018/4/24
Transparency International, How To Stop Corruption: 5 Key Ingredients, 2016/3/10.參考網址:https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/how_to_stop_corruption_5_key_ingredients 瀏覽時間:2018/6/10
United Nations Human Rights Council, Ratification of 18 International Human Rights Treaties 參考網址:http://indicators.ohchr.org 瀏覽時間:2018/4/3
Varrall, Merriden, A Chinese Threat to Australian Openness, New York Times, 2017/7/31.參考網址https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/31/opinion/australia-chinese-students.html?mcubz=1 瀏覽時間:2018/5/30
Who poisoned Viktor Yushchenko? BBC News, 2005/2/22. 參考網址:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/newsnight/4288995.stm 瀏覽時間:2018/5/27
習近平談國家文化軟實力:增強做中國人的骨氣和底氣。人民網,2015/6/25。
參考網址http://cpc.people.com.cn/xuexi/BIG5/n/2015/0625/c385474-27204268.html 瀏覽時間:2018/5/19